Bio116 Lab Exam 2 Review

Bio116 Lab Exam 2 Review Sheet

• General Information:
    - Total of 26 stations with two questions each on the lab exam.
    - The lab exam is a practical exam. Therefore, ensure familiarity with:
      - Procedures
      - Results
      - Identification of various organisms and anatomical structures observed in labs.
    - This review sheet is a guide and not exhaustive. It is suggested to:
      - Re-read lab sections for a comprehensive overview of concepts covered.
      - Review images from labs multiple times to ensure accuracy in labeling all structures/components.

Lab 8: Plant Growth

Exercise 1: Flower Structure

• Identification of Flower Parts:
    - Pedicel: stalk that supports the flower.
    - Receptacle: thickened part of the stem where the flower parts attach.
    - Sepals: green outer parts that protect the flower bud.
    - Petals: colorful parts that attract pollinators.
    - Stamen: male reproductive part, consisting of:
      - Anther: produces pollen.
      - Filament: supports the anther.
    - Pistil: female reproductive part, consisting of:
      - Stigma: sticky part that captures pollen.
      - Style: tube that connects stigma to ovary.
      - Ovary: contains ovules.
      - Ovule: develops into a seed when fertilized.

• Types of Flowers:
    - Perfect Flowers: possess both male and female reproductive parts.
    - Imperfect Flowers: only possess male or female parts.
    - Complete Flowers: have all four floral whorls (sepals, petals, stamens, pistils).
    - Incomplete Flowers: lack one or more of the four whorls.

Exercise 2: Seed and Plant Parts in Angiosperms

• Major Components of a Seed:
    - Embryo, seed coat, endosperm.

• Germination: process where a seed develops into a new plant.

• Identification on a Bean Seed:
    - Seed Coat: protective outer covering of the seed.
    - Hilum: scar left on the seed coat where it was attached to the pod.
    - Cotyledons: seed leaves that provide nutrients to the embryo.
    - Embryo: young plant within the seed.
    - Radicle of Embryo: develops into the root.
    - Stem of Embryo: develops into the stem.
    - True Leaves of Embryo: mature leaves that emerge after germination.

• Functions of Structures:
    - Seed Coat: protection from physical damage and pathogens.
    - Endosperm: provides nutrition to the developing embryo.
    - Cotyledons: energy source during early development.
    - Radicle: initiates the root system.
    - Embryo: future plant that develops into a mature individual.

• Identification on Dicot Sporophyte Plant:
    - Roots: anchorage and nutrient absorption.
    - Shoot: above-ground portion that includes stems and leaves.
    - Stem: supports the plant and transports nutrients.
    - Node: point of leaf attachment on the stem.
    - Internode: stem section between nodes.
    - Terminal Bud: growth point at the tip of the stem.
    - Axillary Bud: growth point in the angle of the leaf and stem.
    - Cotyledons, Leaf, Blade, Petiole, Midrib: components of leaves involved in photosynthesis and transpiration.

Exercise 3: Meristems and Growth

• Meristem: region of undifferentiated cells capable of indeterminate growth.

• Identification on a Coleus Stem Tip Image:
    - Apical Meristem: growth region at the tip of the stem.
    - Axillary Bud Primordia: future buds developing in the leaf axils.
    - Leaf Primordia: young leaves developing from the apical meristem.
    - Older Leaves: mature leaves formed earlier in development.

• Identification on a Root Slide:
    - Root Cap: protects the root tip during growth.
    - Region of Cell Division (Apical Meristem): area where new cells are formed.
    - Region of Cell Elongation: cells increase in size.
    - Region of Maturation: fully developed cells.
    - Vascular Cylinder: contains xylem and phloem for transport.

Exercise 4: Plant Responses to Hormones

• Major Functions of Auxin:
    - Promotes cell elongation, regulates growth direction, and influences fruit development.

• Definitions:
    - Gravitropism: growth response to gravity (roots grow down - positive gravitropism, stems grow up - negative gravitropism).
    - Phototropism: growth response to light (stems bend toward light - positive phototropism, roots grow away - negative phototropism).

• Implications of Continual Reorientation:
    - If continually reoriented, a plant may display mixed directional growth as it attempts to adapt to the changing stimulus, potentially leading to stunted growth or structural weaknesses.

Lab 9: Animal Diversity I

Introduction

• General Characteristics of Animals:
    - Multicellular, heterotrophic, eukaryotic organisms with specialized tissues.
    - Distinguishing characteristics include:
      - Symmetry
      - Number of tissue layers (diploblastic vs. triploblastic)
      - Type of gut (complete vs. incomplete)
      - Body cavity type (coelomate, pseudocoelomate, acoelomate)
      - Organ systems (nervous, circulatory, etc.)
      - Support structures (endoskeleton vs. exoskeleton)
      - Presence of cephalization and segmentation

Exercise 1: Phylum Porifera

• Identification of a Sponge Specimen:
    - Features to Identify:
      - Osculum: large opening for water exit.
      - Spongocoel: central cavity for water flow.
      - Choanocyte: specialized cells for creating water flow and capturing food.

• Function of Choanocytes:
    - Generate water currents and filter food particles from water.

Exercise 2: Phylum Cnidaria

• Identification of Hydra
    - Growth Form: primarily exhibits a polyp form.

• Features to Identify on Hydra:
    - Tentacles: used for capturing prey.
    - Mouth/Anus: single opening for digestion and excretion.
    - Basal Disc: anchors the organism to a substrate.
    - Gastrovascular Cavity: central digestive space.
    - Gastrodermis: inner tissue layer for digestion.
    - Epidermis: outer tissue layer.
    - Mesoglea: jelly-like substance between the body layers.

• Cnidocytes:
    - Specialized cells containing nematocysts (stinging structures), used for prey capture and defense.

Exercise 3: Phylum Platyhelminthes

• Identification of Planaria:
    - Features to Identify:
      - Posterior/Anterior: distinct body ends.
      - Dorsal/Ventral: orientation of the body.
      - Head: flattened region with eyespots.
      - Eyespots: light-sensitive structures.
      - Ganglia: nerve clusters that serve as a simple brain.
      - Auricle: flaps for sensing chemicals.
      - Pharynx: muscular feeding structure.
      - Mouth/Anus: single opening.
      - Gastrovascular Cavity: for digestion.
      - Ventral Nerve Cords: for neural signaling.
      - Epidermis: outer layer.
      - Muscle: allows movement.

Exercise 4: Phylum Mollusca

• Identification of a Clam:
    - Features to Identify (External/Internally):
      - Umbo: raised, rounded shell area.
      - Hinge: joint connecting two shells.
      - Valves: two shell halves.
      - Anterior/Posterior/Dorsal/Ventral: shell orientation.
      - Anterior Adductor Muscle: muscle closing shells from the front.
      - Posterior Adductor Muscle: muscle closing shells from the back.
      - Mantle: tissue layer covering internal organs.
      - Gills: for respiration and filter feeding.
      - Foot: muscular structure for movement.
      - Visceral Mass: contains internal organs.
      - Mouth: feeding structure.
      - Labial Palps: help in feeding.
      - Heart: circulatory organ.
      - Intestines: digestive organ.

Exercise 5: Phylum Annelida

• Identification of an Earthworm:
    - Features to Identify:
      - Anterior/Posterior/Dorsal/Ventral: body orientation.
      - Clitellum: thickened glandular section for reproduction.
      - Brain: simple nervous center.
      - Ventral Nerve Cord: neural structure along the belly.
      - Dorsal Blood Vessel: main blood vessel on top.
      - Pharynx: muscular throat region.
      - Intestine: for digestion.
      - Crop: storage for food.
      - Gizzard: grinds food.
      - Hearts: circulatory structures.
      - Epidermis: skin layer.
      - Seminal Vesicles: store sperm.
      - Seminal Receptacles: receive sperm during copulation.

Lab 10: Animal Diversity II

Exercise 1: Phylum Nematoda

• Identification of Ascaris:
    - Features to Identify (External/Internal/Cross Section):
      - Cuticle: protective outer covering.
      - Epidermis: skin layer.
      - Posterior/Anterior: body ends.
      - Pseudocoelom: body cavity.
      - Testes (Males): reproductive organs.
      - Uterus, Vagina, Oviducts & Ovaries (Females): reproductive structures.
      - Intestine: for digestion.
      - Lateral Lines: sensory canals.
      - Muscle: for movement.
      - Dorsal and Ventral Nerve Cords (if visible): neural structures.

• Lifestyle and Feeding Strategy of Ascaris:
    - Parasitic lifestyle feeding on host nutrients, often leading to malnutrition or health issues in hosts.

Exercise 2: Phylum Arthropoda

• Identification of Crayfish:
    - Features to Identify (External/Internal):
      - Head, Thorax, Abdomen: body regions.
      - Carapace: protective shell covering.
      - Eyes, Antennae: sensory structures.
      - Rostrum: beak-like projection.
      - Swimmerets: for reproduction and swimming.
      - Walking Legs, Chelipeds, Maxillipeds: for locomotion and feeding.
      - Tail: for propulsion.
      - Exoskeleton: hard outer shell for protection.
      - Gills: for breathing.
      - Heart, Stomach, Brain, Ventral Nerve Cords, Green Glands, Digestive Glands, Intestine, Flexor Muscles: comprehensive organ structures for circulation, digestion, and nerve function.

• Identification of Grasshopper:
    - Features to Identify:
      - Head, Thorax, Abdomen: body regions.
      - Spiracles: openings for breathing.
      - Antennae: sensory structures.
      - Compound Eye: complex vision.
      - Forewing, Hindwing: for flight.
      - Legs: multiple types for movement.
      - Anterior/Posterior/Dorsal/Ventral: orientation.

• Advantages of Segmentation in Arthropods:
    - Facilitates specialization of segments for different functions (e.g., locomotion, reproduction).

• Advantages of Exoskeleton in Arthropods:
    - Provides protection from predators and environmental conditions, and supports the body structure.

Exercise 3: Phylum Echinodermata

• Identification of Sea Star:
    - Water-Vascular System: hydraulic system unique to echinoderms used for locomotion, feeding, and respiration.
    - Madreporite: structure that regulates water intake into the system.
    - Tube Feet: extend from the water-vascular system for movement and feeding.
    - Identification of Sea Star Structures:
      - Aboral Surface, Oral Surface, Central Disk, Arms, Madreporite, Ambulacral Grooves, Mouth, Tube Feet, Spines (Endoskeleton), Epidermis, Stomach, Gonads, Digestive Glands, Ampullae: all play roles in movement, feeding, and protection.

Exercise 4: Phylum Chordata

• Identification of Lancelet:
    - Features to Identify:
      - Anterior, Posterior, Head, Mouth, Tentacles: structures for sensing and feeding.
      - Segmented Muscles: allow for swimming movements.
      - Post-Anal Tail: aids in movement.
      - Pharynx, Gill Slits, Gill Bars: used for feeding and respiration.
      - Atriopore, Dorsal Fin, Notochord, Dorsal Nerve Chord, Anus: critical for supporting the body and nervous system.

Lab 11: Vertebrate Anatomy (Fetal Pig)

Exercise 1: External Anatomy

• Identification on Fetal Pig:
    - Dorsal/Ventral/Anterior/Posterior: orientations.
    - Head, Neck, Trunk, Tail, Thorax, Abdomen: major body sections.
    - Mouth, Nostrils, External Auricles, Eyes: sensory structures.
    - Umbilical Cord, Urogenital Opening (Male and Female), Scrotal Sac (Male), Anus: reproductive and excretory features.

• Thorax/Abdomen Separation:
    - Separated by the diaphragm.

• Mammary Papillae:
    - Nipples that produce milk.

• Functions of Urogenital Opening:
    - Serves as exit for urine and reproductive fluids.

Exercise 2: Mouth and Oral Cavity

• Identification on Fetal Pig:
    - Oral Cavity, Teeth, Tongue, Hard Palate, Soft Palate, Glottis, Epiglottis: parts of the mouth involved in feeding and swallowing.

• Function of Palate:
    - Separates the oral cavity from the nasal cavities, allowing for simultaneous breathing and eating.

Exercise 3: Neck

• Identification on Fetal Pig:
    - Larynx, Thyroid Gland, Trachea, Thymus, Esophagus: structures involved in breathing, digestion, and endocrine functions.

• Associated Organs:
    - Endocrine System: thyroid gland.
    - Lymphatic System: thymus.
    - Respiratory System: trachea.
    - Digestive System: esophagus.

Exercise 4: Thorax/Thoracic Cavity

• Identification on Fetal Pig:
    - Sternum, Heart, Lungs, Diaphragm: structures involved in respiration and circulation.

• Function of Diaphragm:
    - Muscle that aids in breathing by contracting and relaxing to change thoracic cavity volume.

• Identification on Heart Model:
    - Right Atrium, Left Atrium, Right Ventricle, Left Ventricle, Aorta, Pulmonary Trunk, Superior Vena Cava: structures involved in circulation.

Exercise 5: Abdominal Cavity

• Identification on Fetal Pig:
    - Liver, Gallbladder, Stomach, Spleen, Small Intestine, Large Intestine, Pancreas, Rectum, Kidney, Ureter, Urinary Bladder: organs involved in digestion and excretion.

• Mesentery:
    - Tissue that supports and holds the intestines in place, containing blood vessels and nerves.

Exercise 6: Reproductive Structures

• Male Fetal Pig Identification:
    - Testes, Epididymis, Vas Deferens, Penis: male reproductive organs.

• Female Fetal Pig Identification:
    - Ovaries, Uterus, Fallopian Tubes: female reproductive organs.

Exercise 7: Human Model

• Identification on Human Torso/Heart Model:
    - Identify all structures previously mentioned on the fetal pig and human models.

Lab 12: Animal Behavior

• Ethology: study of animal behavior in natural environments.
  
  

• Learned vs. Innate Behaviors:
    - Learned Behaviors: acquired through experience.
    - Innate Behaviors: instinctual, genetically hardwired.

• Definitions:
    - Taxis: directed movement toward or away from a stimulus.
    - Kinesis: undirected movement in response to stimulus intensity.

• Agonistic Behavior:
    - Competitive interactions between individuals, such as displays of aggression or submission.

• Differences in Data Types:
    - Quantitative Data: numerical measurements.
    - Qualitative Data: descriptive observations.

• Brine Shrimp Behavior in Low Stimuli Environments:
    - Display reduced movement and activity, indicating a low-stress response.

• Phototaxis of Brine Shrimp:
    - Exhibit positive phototaxis, swimming toward light sources, indicating that it is adaptive for finding food or mates.

• Pill Bug Behavior in Low Stimuli Environments:
    - Decreased movement indicating lower activity levels.

• Pill Bug Behavior in Acid/Base Chambers:
    - Preference for neutral environments; may display taxis toward moist areas over dry.

• Quantifying Pill Bug Behavior:
    - Counting movement patterns or proximity to stimuli.

• Pill Bug Responses to Moist vs. Dry Environments:
    - Prefer moist environments for hydration; avoid dry.

• Male Betta Fish Responses to Reflections:
    - Exhibit aggressive behaviors such as display postures and fin flaring, indicating territoriality.

• Adaptive Value of Agonistic Displays:
    - Deters rivals without physical conflict, maintaining energy and reducing injury risk.

• Broadside Display:
    - Aggressive behavior where an animal displays its size to intimidate opponents.

• Fixed Action Pattern:
    - Innate series of actions triggered by a specific stimulus, executed in a stereotyped manner.

Lab 13: Population Ecology

Introduction

• Community:
    - A group of interacting populations of different species.
    - Knowing plant makeup of a community helps in understanding ecological relationships and biodiversity.

• Importance Value:
    - A measure reflecting the ecological significance of a species within a community based on relative abundance and dominance.

• Species Richness:
    - The number of different species represented in an ecological community.

Exercise 1

• Point-Quarter Method for Sampling:
    - A sampling technique that involves dividing an area into quadrants and measuring the distance to the nearest tree from the point to estimate density and distribution.

• DBH (Diameter at Breast Height):
    - Standard measure of tree diameter, taken at 1.3 meters (4.5 feet) above ground.

• Tree Species Identification:
    - Recognize five tree species based on bark and twig characteristics including Common Buckthorn, Black Cherry, White Pine, Shagbark Hickory, and Burr Oak.

• Basal Area:
    - The cross-sectional area of a tree trunk at breast height, used to measure tree density in a forest.
    - Equation for Basal Area:
      - $ext{Basal Area} = rac{ ext{DBH}^2 imes rac{ ext{π}}{4}}{10000}$

Exercise 2

• Total Tree Density:
    - Overall number of trees per unit area.
    - Equation for Total Tree Density:
      - $ext{Total Tree Density} = rac{ ext{Total Number of Trees}}{ ext{Area}}$

• Relative Density:
    - Proportion of a particular species in relation to total species density.
    - Equation for Relative Density:
      - $ext{Relative Density} = rac{ ext{Number of Individuals of a Species}}{ ext{Total Number of Individuals}} imes 100$

• Absolute Density:
    - Actual number of individuals per area.
    - Equation for Absolute Density:
      - $ext{Absolute Density} = rac{ ext{Number of Individuals}}{ ext{Area}}$

Exercise 3

• Dominance:
    - A measure of the degree to which one species dominates an ecological community.
    - Equation for Dominance:
      - $ext{Dominance} = rac{ ext{Basal Area of Species}}{ ext{Total Basal Area of All Species}} imes 100$

• Environmental Factors in Tree Communities:
    - Light intensity, relative humidity, and ground temperature can significantly affect the structure and composition of tree communities.

Lab 14: Aquatic Ecology

• Species Diversity:
    - Both evenness and number of species are counted together to represent diversity metrics within a community.

• Calculating Species Diversity:
    - Use formulas like Shannon Index or Simpson's Diversity Index to quantify diversity.

• Diversity Value Ranges:
    - High diversity: ranges generally above 3.5 on indices.
    - Low diversity: values significantly below 2.

• Evenness Definition:
    - Measure of how similar the abundances of each species are in a community.

• Interpreting Food Chains and Webs:
    - Be able to identify trophic levels including primary producers, primary consumers, secondary consumers, tertiary consumers, and quaternary consumers, ensuring to understand energy flow and ecosystem dynamics.