AP Human Geography - Unit 1 Notes

Unit 1: Thinking Geographically

Unit 1 Big Ideas

  • Why geographers study relationships and patterns among and between places.

  • How geographers use maps to discover patterns and relationships in the world.

  • How geographers use a spatial perspective to analyze complex issues and relationships.

Background Information

  • Geography is derived from the Greek words "geo" (Earth) + "graphy" (writing) = "earth writing".

Subfields of Geography:

  • Physical Geography

  • Human Geography

Subfields of Human Geography:

  • Population: Includes the study of health, births, migrations, etc.

  • Culture: Includes the study of language, religion, popular music, etc.

  • Economics: Includes the study of agriculture, level of development, wealth distribution, etc.

  • Urban Areas: Study of cities, suburbs, challenges from growth, etc.

  • Politics: Includes local government, nations, distribution of power, etc.

    • The art of creating maps is known as cartography.

1.1: Introduction to Maps

1.1 Essential Knowledge

  • IMP 1A1: Types of maps include reference maps and thematic maps.

  • IMP 1A2: Types of spatial patterns represented on maps include absolute and relative distance and direction, clustering, dispersal, and elevation.

  • IMP 1A3: All maps are selective in information; map projections inevitably distort spatial relationships in shape, area, distance, and direction.

1.1 Learning Objective

  • Identify types of maps, the types of information presented in maps, and different kinds of spatial patterns and relationships portrayed in maps.

Types of Maps

  • Defining Maps:

    • A map is a TWO-dimensional representation of our THREE-dimensional Earth’s surface or a portion of it.

  • Cartography:

    • The study of map-making.

    • Today, maps are created using computers and satellite imagery.

  • Reference Maps:

    • Used for navigation.

    • Provide absolute location.

  • Thematic Maps:

    • A tool used to communicate data across space.

    • Used for spatial analysis.

Types of Thematic Maps:
Isoline (Isometric Maps)

  • Uses lines that connect points of equal value to depict variations in the data across space.

    • Where the lines come close together, the map depicts rapid change.

    • Topographic maps are examples of isoline maps.

Cartogram

  • Land sizes are shown according to specific statistics.

    • Cartograms are useful because they allow for data to be compared, and distance and distribution are also visible.

Choropleth Maps

  • Uses various colors or patterns to show the location and distribution of spatial data.

    • They often show data in defined areas.

Dot Density/Distribution Maps

  • Used to show specific location and distribution of something across the territory of the map.

    • Each dot represents a specified quantity.

Proportional (Graduated) Symbol Maps

  • Use symbols of different sizes to indicate different amounts.

    • Larger sizes indicate more of something, and smaller sizes indicate less.

Types of Spatial Patterns

  • Absolute vs. Relative Location

  • Absolute vs. Relative Direction

  • Absolute vs. Relative Distance

  • Clustering

  • Dispersal (Diffusion)

  • Elevation

Location

Absolute Location

  • Provides an exact location.

    • Uses latitude and longitude.

    • Displayed as a pair of coordinates.

    • Examples:

    • Denmark High School is located at 34.1472∘N34.1472^{\circ} N, 84.2291∘W84.2291^{\circ} W

    • Sydney, Australia is located at 33.8688∘S33.8688^{\circ} S, 151.2093∘E151.2093^{\circ} E

Relative Location

  • Not exact.

    • Describes the location of a place in relationship to another place.

    • Examples:

    • Next door to my house.

    • Down the street from Target.

Latitude and Longitude

  • The globe is covered in a system of imaginary arcs drawn in a gridlike pattern to create a standardized method of measuring distance across Earth’s surface.

Longitude

  • Also known as “meridians”.

    • Runs from the North to South Pole.

    • Measures distance east and west of the Prime Meridian at 0 degrees longitude.

Latitude

  • Also known as “parallels”.

    • Runs East and West around the globe.

    • Measures distance north and south of the Equator at 0 degrees latitude.

Direction

Absolute Direction

  • Uses cardinal directions.

    • Can be determined using a compass rose.

    • Examples:

    • Denmark High School is Northeast of Atlanta.

    • The neighborhood entrance is E, NE of the poolhouse.

Relative Direction

  • Not exact.

    • Describes the direction of a place in relationship to another place.

    • Examples:

    • Tennessee is above Georgia.

    • His house is to the left of mine.

Distance

Absolute Distance

  • Uses a determined unit of measurement like miles or kilometers.

    • On maps, distance can be determined using a scale.

    • Examples:

    • Denmark is 33.2 miles away from Atlanta, GA.

Relative Distance

  • An estimate.

    • May not use a unit of measurement.

    • Examples:

    • England is across the Atlantic Ocean.

    • Just around the corner.

Categories of Scale

Cartographic

  • Refers to the relationship between distance on a map and distance in real life.

    • Cartographic scale can be found on a map, written in one of 3 ways:

    • Written

    • Ratio/Fraction

    • Line/Bar

Geographic/Relative

  • Refers to the “size” at which a map is being represented.

    • Can be described as:

    • Small-scale (small detail)

    • Large-scale (large detail)

    • And as:

    • Local

    • National

    • Subnational Regional

    • World Regional

    • Global scale

    • small-scale or global scale

  • large-scale or local scale.

Clustering

  • Geographers study the distribution and density of things like people and resources in order to identify patterns and trends.

  • Geographers try to answer questions such as:

    • Why are population densities so high along the coast?

    • What could explain the concentration of international trade in one location?

    • Why is English spoken in countries on different continents?

Dispersal

  • Dispersal, or diffusion, refers to the spreading of an idea or phenomenon across spaces.

  • Geographers try to answer questions such as:

    • Which ideas have diffused globally?

    • Which cultural traits remain isolated in spite of globalization?

    • How does technological advancement spread from one group of people to another?

Elevation

  • The locations of elevation and its changes have a significant impact on the flow of people, items, and ideas around the world.

  • Geographers try to answer questions such as:

    • Where are higher elevations and lower elevations typically found?

    • How have communities adapted to elevation changes?

    • How does elevation impact dispersal of ideas?

Maps are Selective in Information

  • Representing a 3-dimensional globe on a 2-dimensional surface (a map) creates distortion.

Types of spatial distortion include

  • Shape distortion

    • Area distortion

    • Distance distortion

    • Direction distortion

  • Different 2-dimensional representations of the Earth are called projections and aim to preserve specific spatial data at the expense of other spatial data.

Map Projections

Mercator

  • Designed by Flemish geographer, Gerardus Mercator, in 1569.

  • Preserves:

    • Shape

    • Direction

  • Distorts:

    • Size/Land Area is distorted as you move closer to the poles

Robinson

  • Designed by American geographer, Arthur Robinson, in 1963.

  • Includes a slight distortion of all spatial features, including area, shape, distance, and direction.

  • This projection is useful for information displayed in/on oceans.

Gall-Peters

  • Published by Scottish cartographer, James Gall, in 1885 and diffused by German historian, Arno Peters.

  • Size/land area is preserved.
    However, land masses are stretched vertically creating distorted shapes.

  • Africa is at the center of this projection in an attempt to provide an alternative to Euro-centric projections.

1.1 Check for Understanding

1) Identify and describe different types of reference and thematic maps.
2) Why do all maps have distortion?
3) Define cartographic scale. How might cartographic scale be communicated on a map?

1.2: Geographic Data

1.2 Essential Knowledge

  • IMP 1B1: Data may be gathered in the field by organizations or by individuals.

  • IMP 1B2: Geospatial technologies include geographic information systems (GIS), satellite navigation systems, remote sensing, and online mapping and visualization.

  • IMP 1B3: Spatial information can come from written accounts in the form of field observations, media reports, travel narratives, policy documents, personal interviews, landscape analysis, and photographic interpretation.

1.2 Learning Objective

  • Identify different methods of geographic data collection.

Fieldwork

  • Data can be gathered in the field by organizations and/or individuals.

  • Organizations might include:

    • News agencies

    • Businesses/corporations

    • Government agencies (Census Bureau)

  • Individuals might include:

    • Residents

    • Real estate agents

    • Entrepreneurs

Geospatial Technologies

Geographic Information Systems (GIS)

  • Involves layering data over maps in order to create a visual representation of spatial distribution.

Global Positioning Systems (GPS)

  • Use data collected by satellites to provide absolute location and/or data necessary for navigation.

Remote Sensing

  • Involves gathering information about the Earth’s surface from a faraway or remote location/device.

  • Satellites and aircrafts both perform remote sensing.

Online Mapping

  • Online mapping and visualization includes websites designed to provide a spatial representation of data.

  • Examples can include:

    • Food delivery apps that provide businesses located near to consumers.

    • Real estate sites that provide spatial data for home buyers.

    • Sites like Google provide locator maps alongside businesses/organizations that publish their info online.

Spatial information can come from…

Written accounts

  • Field observations

  • Media reports

  • Travel narratives

    • Policy documents

    • Personal interviews

    • Landscape analysis

    • Photographic interpretation

1.2 Check for Understanding

1) What are examples of organizations and/or individuals who may do geographical fieldwork?
2) Compare and contrast GIS and GPS.
3) Where does spatial information come from?
4) What are examples of qualitative and quantitative data used by geographers?

1.3: The Power of Geographic Data

1.3 Essential Knowledge

  • IMP 1C1: Geospatial and geographical data, including census data and satellite imagery, are used at all scales for personal, business and organizational, and governmental decision making purposes.

1.3 Learning Objective

  • Explain the geographical effects of decisions made using geographical information.

1.3 Check for Understanding

1) Why is it important to present data at various geographic scales?

1.4: Spatial Concepts

1.4 Essential Knowledge

  • PSO 1A1: Spatial concepts include absolute and relative location, space, place, flows, distance decay, time-space compression, and pattern.

1.4 Learning Objective

  • Define major geographic concepts that illustrate spatial relationships.

Location (Review)

Absolute Location

  • Provides an exact location.

    • Uses latitude and longitude.

    • Displayed as a pair of coordinates.

  • Examples:

    • Denmark High School is located at 34.1472∘N34.1472^{\circ} N, 84.2291∘W84.2291^{\circ} W

    • Sydney, Australia is located at 33.8688∘S33.8688^{\circ} S, 151.2093∘E151.2093^{\circ} E

Relative Location

  • Not exact.

    • Describes the location of a place in relationship to another place.

    • Examples:

    • Next door to my house.

    • Down the street from Target.

Space and Place

Space

  • Refers to the relational concept that acquires meaning and sense when related to other concepts.

  • Geographers study phenomena across space.

Place

  • Place refers to a unique location - a specific point on Earth distinguished by a particular characteristic.

  • Ways to identify a place:

    • Toponyms

    • Site

    • Situation

Ways to Describe a Place

Toponyms (Place names)

  • Refers to any given name of a specific place/location.

  • Can tell us about the culture, history, geography, etc. of a place.

Site

  • Physical characteristics of a place.

  • Can include climate, elevation, topography, soil type, physical buildings, cultural landscape, landmarks, vegetation, etc.

Situation

  • Describes a place in relation to another place; how is a place situated?

  • Similar to relative location.

Sense of Place

  • Characteristics of a place that distinguish it from other places.

  • Can include landmarks, language on signs, symbols, architecture, color schemes/marketing, physical features, people, clothing, etc.

Placelessness

  • Globalization has caused the diffusion of ideas and traits that impact our cultural landscape and create a “uniform landscape”.

  • When two places have a uniform landscape, they lose the unique characteristics that contributed to their “sense of place”.

Flows

  • Flows refer to the movement of people, goods, ideas, etc. across space in an observable direction or pattern.

  • Flows can be used to describe:

    • Human migration

    • Diffusion of cultural traits

    • Exchange of goods and services

Distance Decay

  • Distance decay describes the phenomenon that the farther an idea travels, the weaker, or less impactful, it becomes.

  • As an idea diffuses across space, that space/distance acts as a type of “friction”, breaking up the strength of the idea. This is known as the “friction of distance”.

Distance

  • Inverse relationship between distance and connection - inverse means when one increases the other decreases.

Time-Space Compression

  • Each piece of new communication or transportation technology makes the world feel smaller.

  • As technology improves, the amount of TIME it takes for an idea/person/good to travel across SPACE becomes COMPRESSED.

  • This new technology reduces the impact of the “friction of distance”.

  • Distance decay becomes less and less significant.

Patterns

  • A spatial pattern is the arrangement of objects on Earth’s surface.

  • Geographers analyze patterns in order to develop theories and understandings about how humans interact with Earth and one another.

  • Patterns can be used to describe:

    • Communities/cities

    • Human migration

    • Agricultural practices

    • Cultural diffusion

Describe patterns through:

Geometric vs. Random

  • Clustered vs. Dispersed

  • Linear vs. Circular

    • Density - the frequency with which something occurs in space; may also be described as “concentration”.

1.4 Check for Understanding

1) Compare and contrast “space” and “place”.
2) Identify and describe the 3 ways to describe a place.
3) Explain the relationship between distance decay and time-space compression.

1.5: Human-Environmental Interaction

1.5 Essential Knowledge

  • PSO 1B1: Concepts of nature and society include sustainability, natural resources, and land use.

  • PSO 1B2: Theories regarding the interaction of the natural environment with human societies have evolved from environmental determinism to possibilism.

1.5 Learning Objective

  • Explain how major geographic concepts illustrate spatial relationships.

Cultural Ecology

  • Cultural Ecology refers to the geographic study of human-environment relationships.

  • Cultural ecology looks beyond physical geography and considers the interactions between humans and the earth.

  • Human activity impacts the environment. The environment impacts human activity. The relationship must be studied in order to understand the extent of that impact.

Sustainability

  • Sustainability refers to the use or consumption of resources in a way that does not damage the environment and preserves the ability for future generations to use those resources as well.

    • Can be illustrated as 3 pillars:

    • Environment Pillar - Conservation and preservation of nonrenewable resources.

    • Economic Pillar - Natural resources have monetary value. Price/value depends on the ability/cost to obtain and adapt a resource.

    • Social Pillar - Human needs, like shelter, food, and clothing, and consumer choices impact resource use.

Natural Resources

Nonrenewable resources

  • Are resources that cannot be replenished as quickly as they are consumed.

  • There is a finite amount of these resources available.

  • Use of these resources for fuel results in carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere.

  • Nonrenewable resources are being used at a rate that cannot be sustained long-term.

  • Obtaining these resources causes damage to the Earth’s surface.

Renewable resources

  • Are naturally occurring and can be replenished at the same rate as consumption/use.

    • Renewable resources are also referred to as clean energy sources.

  • CO2 emissions are not a concern.

Criticism of renewable energy

  • Expensive to establish and maintain.

  • Systems of manufacturing, transportation, and energy consumption have to be redesigned for renewable resource use.

    • Could lead to unemployment in primary and secondary sectors.

Human-Environmental Interaction Theories

Environmental Determinism

  • The belief that the physical environment places limitations on human activity and causes social development.

    • Introduced by von Humboldt and Ritter in the early 1800s.

    • Acknowledges that humans can adapt but the environment has “the final say”.

    • Forces such as climate, access to fresh water, elevation, etc. impact where and how humans live as well as how culture develops and diffuses.

Human Possibilism

  • The belief that the physical environment may limit some human activity, but people ultimately have the ability to adjust and adapt to their environment.

  • Acknowledges that the environment has an impact on human activity but humans have “the final say”.

  • Recognizes human ingenuity and resilience.

1.5 Check for Understanding

1) Why do geographers study human-environment interaction?
2) Define sustainability. Describe and identify nonrenewable and renewable resources.
3) Compare and contrast environmental determinism and human possibilism.

1.6: Scales of Analysis

1.6 Essential Knowledge

  • PSO 1C1: Scales of analysis include global, regional, national, and local.

  • PSO 1D1: Patterns and processes at different scales reveal variations in, and different interpretations of, data.

1.6 Learning Objective

  • Define scales of analysis used by geographers. Explain what scales of analysis reveal.

Geographic Scale of Map vs Scale of Analysis

  • The geographic scale of a map may differ from its scale of analysis.
    While geographic scale provides a description of the “big picture”, scale of analysis refers specifically to the scale at which data on the map is presented.

  1. 6 Check for Understanding
    1) How does “scale of analysis” differ from “geographic scale”?
    2) Why is it important to interpret data at various scales of analysis?

1.7: Regional Analysis

1.7 Essential Knowledge

  • SPS 1A1: Regions are defined on the basis of one or more unifying characteristics or on patterns of activity.

  • SPS 1A2: Types of regions include formal, functional, and perceptual/vernacular.

  • SPS 1A3: Regional boundaries are transitional and often contested and overlapping.

  • SPS 1A4: Geographers apply regional analysis at local, national, and global scales.

1.7 Learning Objective

  • Describe different ways that geographers define regions.

Defining “Regions

  • Region refers to an area of Earth defined by having one or more shared characteristics. Characteristics can include patterns of activity.

Types of Regions

  • Regions can be categorized in one of three ways:

  1. Formal/Uniform

  2. Functional/Nodal

  3. Perceptual/Vernacular

Functional/Nodal

  • Functional regions describe an area organized around a node or focal point.

  • The node or focal point often provides a service to the area within the region.

    • Functional regions are also referred to as “nodal” regions.

  • The node relies on transportation and communication networks to reach the functional region’s boundaries.

Examples of functional regions

  1. Pizza Delivery Area

  2. Radio Stations

  3. MARTA

Perceptual/Vernacular

  • Perceptual regions are defined by an individual’s unique perception or experience and can differ from person to person.

    • Perceptual regions are also referred to as “vernacular” regions.

  • Perceptual regions can be compared to “mental maps”. Your mental map of an area will differ from another person’s due to your personal experiences.

Examples of perceptual regions

  1. The “South

Formal/Uniform

  • Formal regions describe an area within which places share in common one or more distinct characteristics.

  • Formal regions are also referred to as “uniform” regions.

  • Formal regions can be formed by a common language, an economic activity, climate, dominant religion, dietary preferences, political unity/affiliation, etc.

Examples of formal regions

  1. State of Georgia

  2. The United States

  3. The Sahara Desert

Regions are Transitional

  • Regions are transitional, contested, and often overlapping

  • Historical events can alter political boundaries

Natural phenomena change the Earth’s surface.

  • Perceptions can lead to disagreements about where a region begins and ends.

Regions at Various Scales of Analysis

Local Regions:

  • Forsyth County - North, South, East, West, Central

  • Georgia - Coastal Plain, Piedmont, Blue Ridge, etc.

  • Metro-Atlanta - Inside the perimeter, outside the perimeter

National Regions

  • United States - Southeast, Pacific Northwest, Midwest, New England

  • Canada - Ontario, Quebec, Prairie Provinces, etc.

Global Regions

  • Middle East, Siberia, Canada, Latin America, North America, United States, Western Europe, Eastern Europe, Central Asia, East Asia, North Africa, South Asia, Caribbean, Northern Africa, West Africa, Central East Africa, Southeast Asia, Southern Africa, Southeast Asia, Australia, Polynesia, Micronesia and Melanesia

  1. 7 Check for Understanding
    1) Why do geographers group areas into regions?
    2) Compare and contrast formal, functional, and perceptual regions.
    3) Why are boundaries considered transitional?