Hall 1993

Nationalisms: Classified and Explained

Author and Publication Details

  • Author: John A. Hall

  • Source: Daedalus, Summer 1993, Vol. 122, No. 3, Reconstructing Nations and States, pp. 1-28

  • Published by: The MIT Press on behalf of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences

  • Stable URL: JSTOR

Introduction

  • Understanding nationalism is an urgent necessity due to its significant impact on the century, greater than expected by mainstream social theory.

  • The plural in the title highlights that no single universal theory of nationalism is possible; concepts must reflect historical diversity.

Overview of Nationalism

  • Evaluation Approach:

    • The analysis will focus on various ideal types of nationalism characterized by names, exemplars, and theorists.

    • An emphasis on political rather than social patterning is central to understanding nationalism.

    • Reference made to economic development studies, indicating that different routes exist for development, paralleling paths of nationalism.

Definition of Nationalism

  • Omnibus Definition: Nationalism is the belief in the primacy of a specific nation, whether real or constructed. It typically shifts from cultural to political forms involving popular mobilization.

  • Presuppositions in Definition:

    1. There have been three significant ages of nationalism:

    • Foundation of new states in Latin America (early 19th century)

    • Expansion post-Woodrow Wilson's contributions at Versailles

    • Creative expansion due to decolonization

    1. Nationalism is fundamentally modern, contrary to some theories that presuppose cultural identities predate modern political forms. Historical context shows dominant ideas emerged only with industrialization and mass communication.

Historical Context of Nationalism

  • Nationalism thrives post empire collapses; the dissolution of the Soviet Union represents a key contemporary moment of resurgence for nationalism.

Major Theorists of Nationalism

  1. Ernest Gellner:

    • Nationalism viewed through the lens of industrial logic.

    • Dependence on a common culture and language in industrial societies is emphasized.

    • Quote: "Nationalism is not the awakening of nations to self-consciousness; it invents nations where they do not exist".

    • Gellner critiques the notion of nationalism being a revival of existing identities, viewing it as a politically manufactured phenomenon.

    • His usage of "invention" of nations emphasizes creation rather than mere rediscovery of existing entities.

  2. Benedict Anderson:

    • Critiques Gellner's characterization, asserting that nationalism embodies creative imagining rather than fabrication.

    • Suggests a historical narrative enhances the ease of nation-building processes.

  3. Immanuel Kant & Historical Analysis:

    • Kant's term 'asocial society' explains competitive state-building in 18th-century Britain and France.

    • Notable historians like Otto Hintze and Charles Tilly help articulate how warfare influences state formation and nationalism.

  4. The Role of Civil Society:

    • Increased connectivity in civil societies fosters political engagement, contrasting traditional barriers to communication.

    • Hayek’s reference to civil society's increase as foundational to the emergence of nationalism.

  5. John Breuilly:

    • Explores nationalism’s development through examples such as Meiji Japan and Prussian reformers. Highlights how states intentionally restructured social fabrics in response to external pressures.

  6. Carl von Clausewitz:

    • Highlights war as a mobilizing factor leading citizens to become active participants, thus intertwining nationalism with military endeavors.

Types of Nationalism

  1. Asocial Society:

    • Emergence of nationalism predating industrialization, exemplified by competition among states in 18th-century Europe.

    • Identified through communal tensions and identity formation in response to state threats.

  2. Revolution from Above:

    • Achievements driven by state elites restructuring society for survival. Notable examples include reformist actions in Prussia post-defeat.

    • Dependency on state power pivots societal dynamics towards nationalism, as witnessed in various European reformations.

  3. Desire and Fear Blessed by Opportunity:

    • Illustrates motivations for Latin American independence driven by disenchantment with colonial rule, emphasizing Enlightenment ideals contributing to nationalist sentiments.

    • Simon Bolivar serves as a key historical figure within this typology.

  4. Risorgimento Nationalism:

    • A grassroots response fostering cultural revival that transitions into political movement, culminating in nation-state formation.

    • Miroslav Hroch's stages of national revival highlight evolving from cultural appreciation to political advocacy.

  5. Integral Nationalism:

    • Aligned with illiberal maximalist attitudes, integrated nationalism rejects universal principles in favor of ethnic homogeneity.

    • Ernst Nolte posits that this nationalism matured post-Versailles, reflecting responses to perceived threats from ethnic diversity.

Modern Variations of Nationalism

  1. Logic of Industry:

    • In the context of globalization, new shapes of nationalism evolve based on economic systems and trade-focused politics.

  2. Postcommunist Nationalism:

    • Varying levels of violence and ethnic identity reconstruction post-Soviet influences complicate these national identities.

    • Emerges from historical grievances intertwined with social structures hampered by past regimes.

  3. Postcolonial Contexts:

    • Multiple ethnicities facing identity crises post colonial rule mark instability in nation-building efforts.

    • Challenges from tribalism emphasize difficulties in crafting cohesive national identities in heterogeneous societies.