CHAP 11 Self, Identity, and Personality: Notes
Feeding on Cloth vs. Wire Mother Graphs
Both graphs depict the relationship between a monkey's age (x-axis) and the mean hours per day spent with either a cloth or wire mother (y-axis).
The y-axis ranges from 0 to 24 hours, in increments of 6 hours.
Fed on Cloth Mother
Wire Mother: The line for the wire mother remains stable at approximately 0 mean hours per day across all ages.
Cloth Mother:
Starts at 15 mean hours per day for monkeys aged 1 to 5 days.
Increases to 18 hours for ages 6 to 10 days.
Reaches 19 hours for ages 11 to 15 days.
Hits 20 hours for ages 16 to 20 days.
Slightly decreases to 19 hours for ages 21 to 25 days.
Fed on Wire Mother
Wire Mother: The line stays within a range of 1 to 3 mean hours per day for all ages.
Cloth Mother:
Begins at 7 mean hours per day for ages 1 to 5 days.
Increases to 8 hours for ages 6 to 10 days.
Reaches 11 hours for ages 11 to 15 days.
Increases further to 16 hours for ages 16 to 20 days, and remains there for ages 21 to 25 days.
Attachment Styles in Different Countries
The following bar graphs illustrate the distribution of attachment styles (insecure-avoidant, insecure-resistant, and secure) across several countries. The x-axis displays percentage values from 0 to 80, in increments of 10.
Germany
Insecure-Avoidant: 35.3\%
Insecure-Resistant: 8.6\%
Secure: 56.6\%
Israel
Insecure-Avoidant: 6.8\%
Insecure-Resistant: 28.8\%
Secure: 64.4\%
United States
Insecure-Avoidant: 21.1\%
Insecure-Resistant: 14.1\%
Secure: 64.8\%
Netherlands
Insecure-Avoidant: 26.3\%
Insecure-Resistant: 6.4\%
Secure: 67.3\%
Japan
Insecure-Avoidant: 5.2\%
Insecure-Resistant: 27.1\%
Secure: 67.7\%
Key Concepts: Self, Identity, and Personality
Central Theme: Managing the lifelong task of self-discovery.
Learning Objectives
Summarize the developmental trends in self-concept from infancy through adulthood (11.1).
Analyze patterns of change and correlates of self-esteem over the lifespan (11.2).
Examine identity development, including its influences and outcomes (11.3).
Describe ethnic-racial identity, its development, influences, and its role in adjustment (11.4).
Compare and contrast trait and psychosocial stage approaches to personality (11.5).
Self-Concept
Definition: The knowledge and beliefs we have about ourselves, including traits and characteristics.
It reflects how we see and describe ourselves.
Self-concept evolves and becomes more intricate throughout life.
Infancy
The starting point involves self-awareness.
Self-Awareness
Early Signs: Infants show awareness of their ability to influence their surroundings.
Example: An infant moving a mobile by kicking indicates an understanding of self as distinct from the environment (Rochat, 1998).
Innate vs. Emergent:
Some researchers suggest an inborn capacity to distinguish self from the environment (Meltzoff, 1990; Rochat, 2019).
Evidence includes newborns reacting differently to recordings of their own cries versus others' (Dondi et al., 1999) and imitating facial expressions (Meltzoff, 2007; Rochat, 2013, 2018).
Others propose awareness emerges around 3 months through interactions with caregivers (Neisser, 1993; Montirosso & McGlone, 2020).
Body Awareness: Arises from contact and interaction, coupled with recognizing the consequences of one's own body movements (Langfur, 2013; Bigelow, 2020).
Self-Recognition
Mirror Test (Rouge Test): A method to study self-awareness.
Rouge is applied to an infant's nose without their knowledge. The infant is then placed before a mirror (Bard et al., 2006).
Recognition is tied to cognitive development and the ability to mentally represent and retain images (Cuevas & Davinson, 2022).
If the infant recognizes themself, they will touch their own nose upon seeing the rouge.
Developmental Progression:
3 months: Infants show interest in their mirror image.
8-9 months: Awareness of tandem movement; playing with the image as if it were another baby (Bullock & Lutkenhaus, 1990).
15-17 months: Some show signs of self-recognition.
18-24 months: Most infants demonstrate self-recognition in the rouge test (Cicchetti et al., 1997).
Brain Activity: EEG studies suggest brain responses to own face images before success in mirror task (Stapel et al., 2017).
Neural Correlates: Mirror self-recognition activates brain areas linked to self-reflection (Bulgarelli et al., 2019).
Toddlerhood
Emerging self-awareness influences socioemotional development.
Complex self-conscious emotions arise (embarrassment, shame, guilt, jealousy, pride) (M. Lewis & Carmody, 2008).
These emotions require an understanding of self (Botto & Rochat, 2018).
Example: Embarrassment in response to praise is linked to mirror recognition (M. Lewis, 2011).
Categorical Self (18-30 months): Self-description based on categories like sex, age, and physical characteristics (Stipek et al., 1990).
Children describe themselves as "big," "strong," "girl/boy," or "baby/big kid."
This guides behavior, like toy preferences based on gender.
Childhood
Early Childhood (3-4 years): Self-descriptions are concrete, focusing on appearance, abilities, activities, possessions, and simple traits (Harter, 2012a).
Example: "I'm 4 years old. I have black hair. I'm happy…I can run really fast."
Emerging awareness of internal characteristics, such as emotions and attitudes (Thompson & Virmani, 2010).
Middle Childhood: Shift to trait-like psychological constructs (popular, smart, good-looking).
Self-concept describes abilities and personality traits rather than specific behaviors.
Children understand traits can vary with context.
By age 9, they describe themselves across physical, academic, athletic, social, and behavioral domains (Harter, 2012a, 2012b).
Academic Self-Concept: Beliefs about abilities in math and reading predict academic achievement (Cvencek et al., 2018; Susperreguy et al., 2018).
Skin Color: Children notice physical differences and may exhibit preferences for certain skin colors, which declines around age 9 (Aboud & Steele, 2017; A. Williams & Steele, 2019).
Parents and teachers can counteract discriminatory messages with anti-bias frameworks (Beneke et al., 2019).
Culture: Influences self-conceptions through interactions and context.
U.S. children focus on personal roles, preferences, and positive attributes, while Chinese children focus on social interactions and modest tones (Bigelow, 2020).
Emotional responses to success and failure also vary across cultures (M. Lewis et al., 2010; Thompson & Virmani, 2010).
Adolescence
More complex, differentiated, and organized self-concept (Esnaola et al., 2020; Harter, 2012b).
Use multiple abstract labels across domains like academics, social skills, appearance, and emotional regulation.
Awareness of situational variability leads to qualifiers in self-descriptions (Balakrishnan, 2020).
Ideal Self: Adolescents imagine future lives and identify an ideal self.
Discrepancy between ideal and real self is associated with depression and low self-esteem (Ferguson et al., 2010; Stevens et al., 2014).
Supportive relationships promote a positive self-concept (Dudovitz et al., 2017; Van Dijk et al., 2014).
Adulthood
Beliefs about possibilities shift (J. Smith & Freund, 2002; Voss et al., 2017).
Young adults have idealistic aspirations, which become more realistic by middle adulthood.
Adults revise possible selves to balance aspirations with experiences and find meaning (Bybee & Wells, 2003; Lapp & Spaniol, 2016).
Influence on Functioning: Self-concept impacts well-being (Sneed et al., 2012).
Middle-aged adults accept both good and bad qualities (Ryff, 1991, 1995).
Older adults compartmentalize self-concept, focusing on strengths to compensate for weaknesses (Ready et al., 2012).
Life satisfaction increases into old age (Darbonne et al., 2012; Jeste & Oswald, 2014).
Subjective Age: How old one feels (Barrett & Montepare, 2015).
Adults over 30 tend to feel younger than their chronological age, increasing with age (Bergland et al., 2014; Shinan-Altman & Werner, 2019).
Older adults may feel 13-18% younger (Bergland et al., 2014; Pinquart & Wahl, 2021; Shinan-Altman & Werner, 2019).
Influenced by cultural messages and negative age-related stereotypes (Kornadt et al., 2018).
Associated with health and wellness measures (Degges-White & Kepic, 2020; Keyes & Westerhof, 2012; Ryff, 2014. Stephan et al., 2018, 2021).
Younger subjective age linked to better cognitive performance (Stephan et al., 2014) and brain health (Kwak et al., 2018).
Acts as a protective factor by altering sense of control and enhancing vitality (Debreczeni & Bailey, 2021).
Malleable in response to contextual conditions (M. L. Hughes & Touron, 2021), such as memory tests (M. L. Hughes et al., 2013) and reminders of physical aging (Barrett & Gumber, 2020).
Perceived Control (Self-Efficacy): Expectations about ability to achieve desired outcomes (Robinson & Lachman, 2017).
Increases in early adulthood, peaks in midlife, declines in late adulthood (Drewelies et al., 2017; Lachman et al., 2015).
Successful aging marked by accurate control beliefs and adaptive coping (Heckhausen et al., 2010; Shane & Heckhausen, 2019).
Varies with gender, socioeconomic status, and race (Drewelies et al., 2017; Vargas Lascano et al., 2015; Brondolo et al., 2018; Peterson et al., 2020).
Correlates with better physical health, life satisfaction, and lower mortality (Infurna et al., 2011; Robinson & Lachman, 2017).
Influences emotion regulation and adaptation to life changes (White et al., 2012; Infurna et al., 2011; Infurna & Okun, 2015).
Reminiscence and Life Review: Recall and reflection on past experiences (Prebble et al., 2013; Demiray et al., 2019; King et al., 2019).
Reminiscence aids in managing life transitions and preserving a sense of self (Demiray et al., 2019).
Life review permits self-understanding and assigning meaning to life (Butler, 1963, 1974; Erikson, 1982).
Interventions can encourage reminiscence and life review, fostering mastery and well-being (Davis & Degges-White, 2008; Satorres et al., 2023; Webster et al., 2010; Westerhof, 2016).
Self-Esteem
Definition: Self-evaluation, feelings of self-worth, self-acceptance, and self-respect (Orth & Robins, 2019).
Develops from childhood and throughout lifespan.
Early Childhood
Young children tend to evaluate themselves positively.
Often have high self-esteem that doesn't always match their abilities (Harter, 2012b; Zell et al., 2019).
They underestimate task difficulty and believe they will always succeed.
Overly Optimistic Perspective: Attributed to cognitive development, secure attachments, and positive feedback (Goodvin et al., 2008; Verschueren, 2020).
No Social Comparison: Young children do not compare their performance to others.
Caregiving: Sensitive caregiving promotes self-esteem by supporting attempts, emphasizing effort, and providing realistic feedback (Brummelman & Sedikides, 2020).
Middle Childhood
Self-esteem increases (Orth et al., 2018).
Children evaluate abilities more objectively, based on feedback from parents, teachers, and peers.
Social Comparison: Children start comparing themselves to peers (Gerber, 2020; Harter, 2012a).
Those who depend on approval from others are at risk for poor self-esteem (Moore & Smith, 2018).
Specific Domains: Self-esteem becomes tied to academics, social life, and athletic ability (Orth et al., 2020).
Abilities and Beliefs: Self-esteem tied to abilities that they view as important (Davis-Kean et al., 2009).
Positive Parent-Child Interactions: Secure attachment predicts high self-esteem (Harris et al., 2017; Krauss et al., 2020; Magro et al., 2019).
Caregivers who are warm, express positive emotions, and acceptance nurture self-esteem (Brummelman, 2017; Verschueren, 2020).
Overvaluing Attributes: When parents overvalue children, they may develop narcissism (Brummelman, 2018).
Fostering Self-Esteem: Warm parent-child interactions, encouragement for realistic goals, and praise related to performance (Brummelman & Sedikides, 2020).
Adolescence
Self-evaluations are differentiated.
Describe and evaluate themselves, overall and in specific areas (Esnaola et al., 2020; Orth et al., 2020).
Positive self-esteem when they evaluate themselves favorably in important areas.
Decline in Early Adolescence: Typically declines at 11 years, lowest at 13, then rises (Orth, 2017b).
Due to transitions (body changes, self-comparisons) (Schaffhuser et al., 2017).
Ethnic Differences: Black adolescents have higher self-esteem (Bachman et al., 2011; Erol & Orth, 2011; Louie & Wheaton, 2019).
Protected by close-knit communities that offer support and positive feedback (Rose et al., 2019).
Self-esteem buffers negative effects of discrimination (N. C. Smith & Nicholson, 2022).
Culture influences low self-evaluations (X. Chen & Graham, 2018).
Influence on Behavior: High self-esteem promotes confidence and willingness to reject poor advice (Baumeister & Vohs, 2018; Cvencek & Greenwald, 2020).
More self-compassion and view failures as opportunities for self-awareness (Barry et al., 2015).
Low self-esteem is associated with risky behavior (Jackman & MacPhee, 2017; Lee et al., 2018; Oshri et al., 2017) and adjustment difficulties (Fiorilli et al., 2019; Orth, 2017b).
Family and Peers Contexts: High-quality parent-adolescent relations are associated with higher self-worth (Babore et al., 2017; Harris et al., 2015; Keizer et al., 2019; Miconi et al., 2017).
Peer acceptance can buffer a distant relationship with parents (Birkeland et al., 2014).
Adulthood
Self-esteem increases from early to middle adulthood, peaking at 60 and remaining stable until 70, then declining (Orth & Robins, 2019; Orth et al., 2018).
Patterns apply across gender, ethnicity, and country.
Associated with positive emotional, social, and career outcomes.
Shifts in Social Roles: Parallels changing social roles (Hutteman et al., 2014).
Competence in new roles increases confidence.
Middle-aged adults invest in relationships at home and work (Marks et al., 2004).
Autonomy: Become more autonomous, less concerned with others' evaluations, and more concerned with self-chosen ideals (Ryff, 1991).
Middle-aged adults accept both good and bad qualities (Ryff, 1995).
Revised possible selves influence well-being (Orth et al., 2010).
Late Adulthood: Social roles decline.
Loss of valued roles can contribute to declines (Orth et al., 2015).
Most maintain a positive view of themselves (Orth & Robins, 2019).
Older adults often view themselves in complex ways (Labouvie-Vief & Diehl, 1999).
They compartmentalize self-concept, focusing on strengths (Ready et al., 2012).
Identity
Answers to the question "Who are you?"
A coherent and consistent sense of self over time (Erikson, 1950).
Psychosocial Moratorium:
A time-out period allowing adolescents to explore possibilities.
Crucial for a successful identity search.
Identity Status:
The degree to which individuals have explored possible selves and committed to beliefs and goals (Marcia, 1966).
Four Categories:
Identity Diffusion: No exploration or commitment, pervasive uncertainty.
Identity Foreclosure: Prematurely chosen identity without exploration, inflexible.
Moratorium: Active exploration of ideas, open to possibilities, some uncertainty.
Identity Achievement: Constructed sense of self through reflection, commitment to beliefs.
Domains of Identity:
Identity is formed in different areas, such as career, relationships, etc.
The pace and pattern of development vary across identity domains.
Broad umbrella domains: interpersonal and ideological.
Influences on Identity Development:
Constructed through relationships and interactions with parents and peers.
Parents provide a sense of security and autonomy.
Peers serve as a mirror in which adolescents view their emerging identities.
Romantic partners influence each other reciprocally.
Outcomes Associated With Identity Development:
Identity achievement is associated with high self-esteem and positive views.
Young people in the moratorium status often feel puzzled.
Young people who show identity foreclosure tend to take a rigid stance.
By late adolescence, identity diffusion is indicative of maladjustment.
Lifespan Change in Identity:
Researchers believe Early adulthood, especially emerging adulthood, is an important time for identity development.
Exposure to new environments, independence, and cognition makes the college years ripe for identity development.
Even adults who have achieved a sense of identity continue to develop and change.
Adulthood with changes in life circumstances, contexts, and developmental needs reconstructs identity.
Ethnic-Racial Identity
Sense of membership to an ethnic or racial group (Phinney & Ong, 2007; Rivas-Drake et al., 2014; Umaña-Taylor, 2016a).
Understanding of Race and Ethnicity in Infancy and Childhood
Infancy:
Categorize people by appearance.
Prefer familiar social and racial stimuli.
Become less able to recognize faces from unfamiliar ethnic-racial groups.
Childhood:
Cognitive abilities enable them to reason explicitly, but concretely, about ethnicity and race.
Associate observable characteristics with race.
Middle Childhood:
Use ethnic and racial group terms as self-descriptors.
Peers, school, and the community play a role.
Development of Ethnic-Racial Identity
Influences experience, interpretation, and response to discrimination.
Develops and changes over time.
Explore ethnic-racial identity by learning about cultural practices.
Three Statuses
Unexamined Status: Has not explored the meaning of ethnicity or race.
Exploration Status: Actively searching for information about ethnic and racial group membership.
Achievement Status: Explored ethnicity or race, considered its meaning, and internalized it.
Influences on Ethnic-Racial Identity
Parents:
The family is an important context because warm family relationships are associated with well-developed ethnic identities.
Parents promote ethnic and cultural socialization and pride.
Peers:
Peers and friends influence ethnic diversity by communicating experiences and beliefs about ethnicity and race.
Peers provide a sense of community.
Teachers:
May convey stereotypical, discriminatory, or racist messages to students.
Discrimination and Ethnic Identity
Adolescents of color may become increasingly aware of and sensitive to negative stereotypes.
Discrimination and ethnic-racial identity are interwoven and influence each other.
Ethnic-Racial Identity and Adjustment
A strong sense of ethnic-racial identity can reduce the negative impact of racial discrimination on adjustment.
Linked to school achievement.
Show better socioemotional functioning and fewer emotional and behavior problems.
Personalities
We view ourselves in more complicated ways as we age, but the content of our self-conceptions, our beliefs about ourselves, remain similar over adulthood as our personalities shift and adjust to situations.
Trait Approach
Researchers categorized personality research into clusters, labeled as
The Big Five personality traits
Openness:
Curious, explorative, and creative
Conscientiousness:
Responsible, disciplined, task-oriented, and planful
Extroversion:
Socially outgoing, high activity, enthusiastic
Agreeableness
Trusting, cooperative, helpful
Neuroticism
Moodiness, fear, worry, insecurity
Personality Traits in Childhood and Adolescence
Our personality traits emerge as temperament.
This, in turn, evolves into recognizable personality traits and influences how the child behaves and experience life
Personality Stability and Change in Adulthood
The most pronounced changes in personality traits tend to occur in early adulthood, before age 30, and late adulthood.
Early adulthood is characterized by increases in conscientiousness, agreeableness, and emotional stability.
Influences on Personalities
Individual Differences
Change can differ among individual groups
Genetics
Stability in personality is heavily influenced by Genetics, specifically monozygotic
There are a few that don't cause dramatic change in personality
Role transitions
Social investments in personality maturation
Personality and Adjustment
Well-being
Well-being has been recorded to increase over older adult years.
A 16,000 study revealed that personality traits predicted and changed well-being
Health
Traits can predict health and mortality
Conscientiousness has an especially close association, which influences behaviors from exercise, eating habits, and substance use
Erikson's Psychosocial Stages
According to Erik Erikson (1950), as we travel through the lifespan we proceed through a series of psychosocial crises, or developmental tasks.
Trust Versus Mistrust
According to Erikson (1950), developing a sense of trust versus mistrust is the first developmental task of life.
Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt
Toddlers walk on their own, express their own ideas and needs, and become more independent.
Initiative Versus Guilt
Young children, ages 3 to 6 years, must develop a sense of purposefulness and take pride in their accomplishments.
Industry Over Inferiority
Middle childhood, ages 6 to 11, represents an important transition in children's conceptions of themselves and their abilities.
Intimacy Versus Isolation
The major psychosocial task of developing the capacity for intimacy and making a permanent commitment to a romantic partner from the start of 18 to 40.
Generativity Versus Stagnation
Middle-aged adults face the developmental task of cultivating a sense of generativity, a concern and sense of responsibility for future generations and society as a whole.
Ego Integrity Versus Despair
Ego Integrity is more apparent in older adults, with cumulative choices that compose integrity in an individual's life.
Levinson's Seasons of Life
Based on interviews with 40 men aged 35 to 45 and, later, 45 women aged 35 to 45, all of whom worked in a wide variety of occupations, Levinson concluded that adults progress through a common set of phases that he called seasons of life.
The key element of Levinson's psychosocial theory is the life structure, which refers to the overall organization of a person's life
Feeding on Cloth vs. Wire Mother Graphs
Both graphs depict the relationship between a monkey's age (x-axis) and the mean hours per day spent with either a cloth or wire mother (y-axis).
The x-axis represents the monkey's age, typically in days, while the y-axis indicates the average time spent with either the cloth or wire mother each day.
The y-axis ranges from 0 to 24 hours, in increments of 6 hours. This allows for detailed tracking of the time spent with each mother figure.
Fed on Cloth Mother
Wire Mother: The line for the wire mother remains stable at approximately 0 mean hours per day across all ages. This indicates that when monkeys are fed by a cloth mother, they show virtually no attachment to the wire mother.
Cloth Mother:
Starts at 15 mean hours per day for monkeys aged 1 to 5 days. This suggests an initial strong preference for the cloth mother from the earliest stages.
Increases to 18 hours for ages 6 to 10 days. The bond with the cloth mother strengthens as the monkey grows.
Reaches 19 hours for ages 11 to 15 days. The attachment continues to solidify.
Hits 20 hours for ages 16 to 20 days. This indicates the peak of attachment to the cloth mother during this period.
Slightly decreases to 19 hours for ages 21 to 25 days. This slight decrease may reflect increasing exploration or interaction with the environment, but the attachment remains strong.
Fed on Wire Mother
Wire Mother: The line stays within a range of 1 to 3 mean hours per day for all ages. Even when the wire mother provides food, the attachment remains minimal compared to the cloth mother scenario.
Cloth Mother:
Begins at 7 mean hours per day for ages 1 to 5 days. Despite being fed by the wire mother, the monkey still seeks comfort and attachment from the cloth mother.
Increases to 8 hours for ages 6 to 10 days. The preference for the cloth mother starts to grow.
Reaches 11 hours for ages 11 to 15 days. The need for comfort from the cloth mother is increasingly evident.
Increases further to 16 hours for ages 16 to 20 days, and remains there for ages 21 to 25 days. This demonstrates a strong, consistent preference for the cloth mother, even when it is not the source of food. This preference highlights the importance of comfort and security in forming attachments.
Attachment Styles in Different Countries
The following bar graphs illustrate the distribution of attachment styles (insecure-avoidant, insecure-resistant, and secure) across several countries. The x-axis displays percentage values from 0 to 80, in increments of 10.
Germany
Insecure-Avoidant: 35.3\% - A relatively high percentage of insecure-avoidant attachment, which may be linked to cultural emphasis on independence.
Insecure-Resistant: 8.6\% - A low percentage, suggesting less ambivalence in attachment behaviors.
Secure: 56.6\% - A moderate percentage, indicating a balance between independence and security in attachment.
Israel
Insecure-Avoidant: 6.8\% - A very low percentage, potentially due to communal child-rearing practices.
Insecure-Resistant: 28.8\% - A high percentage, which could be related to specific child-rearing practices or cultural norms that emphasize closeness.
Secure: 64.4\% - A substantial percentage, suggesting secure attachment is prevalent.
United States
Insecure-Avoidant: 21.1\% - Moderate percentage, reflecting diverse parenting styles.
Insecure-Resistant: 14.1\% - Average percentage, showing some ambivalence in children's attachment behaviors.
Secure: 64.8\% - A good percentage, signifying a generally secure attachment base.
Netherlands
Insecure-Avoidant: 26.3\% - Relatively high, potentially stemming from independent-focused parenting.
Insecure-Resistant: 6.4\% - Very low, suggesting clear attachment behaviors.
Secure: 67.3\% - High percentage, demonstrating secure attachments.
Japan
Insecure-Avoidant: 5.2\% - Very low, potentially linked to strong emphasis on maternal closeness.
Insecure-Resistant: 27.1\% - High, which could reflect cultural emphasis on emotional expression.
Secure: 67.7\% - Significant, indicating secure attachments.
Key Concepts: Self, Identity, and Personality
Central Theme: Managing the lifelong task of self-discovery. This involves continuous exploration, evaluation, and integration of experiences to understand oneself better.
Learning Objectives
Summarize the developmental trends in self-concept from infancy through adulthood (11.1). This includes understanding how self-awareness, self-recognition, and self-description evolve over time.
Analyze patterns of change and correlates of self-esteem over the lifespan (11.2). This involves examining how self-worth and self-acceptance change and what factors influence these changes.
Examine identity development, including its influences and outcomes (11.3). This covers the exploration and commitment to personal beliefs, values, and goals.
Describe ethnic-racial identity, its development, influences, and its role in adjustment (11.4). This involves understanding how individuals develop a sense of belonging to an ethnic or racial group and how it affects their well-being.
Compare and contrast trait and psychosocial stage approaches to personality (11.5). This includes evaluating different theoretical perspectives on personality development and their implications.
Self-Concept
Definition: The knowledge and beliefs we have about ourselves, including traits and characteristics. This encompasses how we perceive and describe ourselves, influencing our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
It reflects how we see and describe ourselves. Self-concept is dynamic and evolves through interactions, experiences, and reflections.
Self-concept evolves and becomes more intricate throughout life. This evolution is influenced by cognitive, social, and emotional development.
Infancy
The starting point involves self-awareness. Infants begin to distinguish themselves from their environment.
Self-Awareness
Early Signs: Infants show awareness of their ability to influence their surroundings. This awareness is a foundational step in developing a sense of self.
Example: An infant moving a mobile by kicking indicates an understanding of self as distinct from the environment (Rochat, 1998). This shows an understanding of cause and effect related to their own actions.
Innate vs. Emergent:
Some researchers suggest an inborn capacity to distinguish self from the environment (Meltzoff, 1990; Rochat, 2019). This perspective argues for a biological predisposition to self-awareness.
Evidence includes newborns reacting differently to recordings of their own cries versus others' (Dondi et al., 1999) and imitating facial expressions (Meltzoff, 2007; Rochat, 2013, 2018). These behaviors indicate an early capacity to differentiate self from others.
Others propose awareness emerges around 3 months through interactions with caregivers (Neisser, 1993; Montirosso & McGlone, 2020). This perspective emphasizes the role of social interaction in developing self-awareness.
Body Awareness: Arises from contact and interaction, coupled with recognizing the consequences of one's own body movements (Langfur, 2013; Bigelow, 2020). Infants learn about themselves through sensory experiences and motor actions.
Self-Recognition
Mirror Test (Rouge Test): A method to study self-awareness. This test provides insights into an infant's ability to recognize themselves.
Rouge is applied to an infant's nose without their knowledge. The infant is then placed before a mirror (Bard et al., 2006). This setup assesses whether the infant recognizes the reflection as themselves.
Recognition is tied to cognitive development and the ability to mentally represent and retain images (Cuevas & Davinson, 2022). The ability to recognize oneself requires the development of mental representation.
If the infant recognizes themself, they will touch their own nose upon seeing the rouge. This behavior indicates self-recognition.
Developmental Progression:
3 months: Infants show interest in their mirror image. They are curious about the reflection but do not yet recognize it as themselves.
8-9 months: Awareness of tandem movement; playing with the image as if it were another baby (Bullock & Lutkenhaus, 1990). Infants recognize that their movements are synchronized with the reflection, but they still treat it as another person.
15-17 months: Some show signs of self-recognition. Infants begin to demonstrate behaviors suggesting they recognize themselves in the mirror.
18-24 months: Most infants demonstrate self-recognition in the rouge test (Cicchetti et al., 1997). This is the period when self-recognition typically emerges.
Brain Activity: EEG studies suggest brain responses to own face images before success in mirror task (Stapel et al., 2017). Neural activity related to self-recognition can be detected even before behavioral signs are evident.
Neural Correlates: Mirror self-recognition activates brain areas linked to self-reflection (Bulgarelli et al., 2019). Specific brain regions become active when individuals recognize themselves, indicating the neural basis of self-awareness.
Toddlerhood
Emerging self-awareness influences socioemotional development. Toddlers begin to experience and express more complex emotions related to their sense of self.
Complex self-conscious emotions arise (embarrassment, shame, guilt, jealousy, pride) (M. Lewis & Carmody, 2008). These emotions require an understanding of self and others.
These emotions require an understanding of self (Botto & Rochat, 2018). Self-conscious emotions are tied to self-evaluation and awareness of social standards.
Example: Embarrassment in response to praise is linked to mirror recognition (M. Lewis, 2011). This shows how self-recognition is associated with more complex emotional responses.
Categorical Self (18-30 months): Self-description based on categories like sex, age, and physical characteristics (Stipek et al., 1990). Toddlers begin to define themselves based on concrete categories.
Children describe themselves as "big," "strong," "girl/boy," or "baby/big kid." These descriptors reflect their understanding of themselves in relation to these categories.
This guides behavior, like toy preferences based on gender. The categorical self influences behavior and preferences.
Childhood
Early Childhood (3-4 years): Self-descriptions are concrete, focusing on appearance, abilities, activities, possessions, and simple traits (Harter, 2012a). Children at this age define themselves based on easily observable characteristics.
Example: "I'm 4 years old. I have black hair. I'm happy…I can run really fast." This reflects a concrete and descriptive self-concept.
Emerging awareness of internal characteristics, such as emotions and attitudes (Thompson & Virmani, 2010). Children start to recognize their internal states and feelings.
Middle Childhood: Shift to trait-like psychological constructs (popular, smart, good-looking). Children begin to describe themselves using more abstract personality traits.
Self-concept describes abilities and personality traits rather than specific behaviors. They move from concrete descriptions to more abstract self-assessments.
Children understand traits can vary with context. They recognize that their traits can manifest differently in different situations.
By age 9, they describe themselves across physical, academic, athletic, social, and behavioral domains (Harter, 2012a, 2012b). This reflects a more differentiated and comprehensive self-concept.
Academic Self-Concept: Beliefs about abilities in math and reading predict academic achievement (Cvencek et al., 2018; Susperreguy et al., 2018). Positive academic self-concept is associated with better performance.
Skin Color: Children notice physical differences and may exhibit preferences for certain skin colors, which declines around age 9 (Aboud & Steele, 2017; A. Williams & Steele, 2019). Awareness of racial differences emerges in childhood.
Parents and teachers can counteract discriminatory messages with anti-bias frameworks (Beneke et al., 2019). Interventions can mitigate the impact of prejudice and discrimination.
Culture: Influences self-conceptions through interactions and context. Cultural values shape how individuals perceive themselves.
U.S. children focus on personal roles, preferences, and positive attributes, while Chinese children focus on social interactions and modest tones (Bigelow, 2020). Cultural differences influence the content of self-concept.
Emotional responses to success and failure also vary across cultures (M. Lewis et al., 2010; Thompson & Virmani, 2010). Cultural norms influence how individuals respond to achievements and setbacks.
Adolescence
More complex, differentiated, and organized self-concept (Esnaola et al., 2020; Harter, 2012b). Adolescents develop a more nuanced and integrated understanding of themselves.
Use multiple abstract labels across domains like academics, social skills, appearance, and emotional regulation. Self-descriptions become more multifaceted and domain-specific.
Awareness of situational variability leads to qualifiers in self-descriptions (Balakrishnan, 2020). Adolescents recognize that their traits and behaviors can vary depending on the context.
Ideal Self: Adolescents imagine future lives and identify an ideal self. This involves envisioning who they want to become.
Discrepancy between ideal and real self is associated with depression and low self-esteem (Ferguson et al., 2010; Stevens et al., 2014). A large gap between the ideal and real self can lead to emotional distress.
Supportive relationships promote a positive self-concept (Dudovitz et al., 2017; Van Dijk et al., 2014). Positive social support enhances self-esteem and well-being.
Adulthood
Beliefs about possibilities shift (J. Smith & Freund, 2002; Voss et al., 2017). Adults revise their expectations and goals based on experiences.
Young adults have idealistic aspirations, which become more realistic by middle adulthood. Early adulthood is characterized by optimism, while middle adulthood involves a more pragmatic outlook.
Adults revise possible selves to balance aspirations with experiences and find meaning (Bybee & Wells, 2003; Lapp & Spaniol, 2016). This revision allows for better adjustment and life satisfaction.
Influence on Functioning: Self-concept impacts well-being (Sneed et al., 2012). How individuals view themselves affects their overall quality of life.
Middle-aged adults accept both good and bad qualities (Ryff, 1991, 1995). Increased self-acceptance contributes to psychological well-being.
Older adults compartmentalize self-concept, focusing on strengths to compensate for weaknesses (Ready et al., 2012). This strategy helps maintain a positive self-image in the face of age-related declines.
Life satisfaction increases into old age (Darbonne et al., 2012; Jeste & Oswald, 2014). Despite physical and cognitive changes, older adults often report high levels of satisfaction.
Subjective Age: How old one feels (Barrett & Montepare, 2015). Subjective age influences attitudes, behaviors, and health outcomes.
Adults over 30 tend to feel younger than their chronological age, increasing with age (Bergland et al., 2014; Shinan-Altman & Werner, 2019). This phenomenon is more pronounced in older adults.
Older adults may feel 13-18\% younger (Bergland et al., 2014; Pinquart & Wahl, 2021; Shinan-Altman & Werner, 2019). Feeling younger is associated with various positive outcomes.
Influenced by cultural messages and negative age-related stereotypes (Kornadt et al., 2018). Societal attitudes can affect how individuals perceive their own aging process.
Associated with health and wellness measures (Degges-White & Kepic, 2020; Keyes & Westerhof, 2012; Ryff, 2014. Stephan et al., 2018, 2021). Feeling younger is linked to better physical and mental health.
Younger subjective age linked to better cognitive performance (Stephan et al., 2014) and brain health (Kwak et al., 2018). Maintaining a younger subjective age is associated with better cognitive function.
Acts as a protective factor by altering sense of control and enhancing vitality (Debreczeni & Bailey, 2021). Feeling younger can improve overall well-being and resilience.
Malleable in response to contextual conditions (M. L. Hughes & Touron, 2021), such as memory tests (M. L. Hughes et al., 2013) and reminders of physical aging (Barrett & Gumber, 2020). Subjective age can fluctuate based on situational cues.
Perceived Control (Self-Efficacy): Expectations about ability to achieve desired outcomes (Robinson & Lachman, 2017). Perceived control influences goal setting and persistence.
Increases in early adulthood, peaks in midlife, declines in late adulthood (Drewelies et al., 2017; Lachman et al., 2015). Perceived control varies across the lifespan.
Successful aging marked by accurate control beliefs and adaptive coping (Heckhausen et al., 2010; Shane & Heckhausen, 2019). Adjusting control beliefs to match actual abilities is key to successful aging.
Varies with gender, socioeconomic status, and race (Drewelies et al., 2017; Vargas Lascano et al., 2015; Brondolo et al., 2018; Peterson et al., 2020). Demographic factors influence perceived control.
Correlates with better physical health, life satisfaction, and lower mortality (Infurna et al., 2011; Robinson & Lachman, 2017). Higher perceived control is associated with positive health outcomes.
Influences emotion regulation and adaptation to life changes (White et al., 2012; Infurna et al., 2011; Infurna & Okun, 2015). Perceived control affects how individuals cope with stress and transitions.
Reminiscence and Life Review: Recall and reflection on past experiences (Prebble et al., 2013; Demiray et al., 2019; King et al., 2019). Reviewing past experiences helps individuals make sense of their lives.
Reminiscence aids in managing life transitions and preserving a sense of self (Demiray et al., 2019). Reflecting on the past can provide comfort and continuity during transitions.
Life review permits self-understanding and assigning meaning to life (Butler, 1963, 1974; Erikson, 1982). Life review involves a more structured and evaluative reflection on one's life.
Interventions can encourage reminiscence and life review, fostering mastery and well-being (Davis & Degges-White, 2008; Satorres et al., 2023; Webster et al., 2010; Westerhof, 2016). Therapeutic interventions can promote positive reflection and psychological health.
Self-Esteem
Definition: Self-evaluation, feelings of self-worth, self-acceptance, and self-respect (Orth & Robins, 2019). Self-esteem reflects the overall evaluation of one's own worthiness.
Develops from childhood and throughout lifespan. Self-esteem is not static but evolves through different life stages.
Early Childhood
Young children tend to evaluate themselves positively. They often have an inflated sense of their abilities.
Often have high self-esteem that doesn't always match their abilities (Harter, 2012b; Zell et al., 2019). This positive bias is common in early childhood.
They underestimate task difficulty and believe they will always succeed. Children often overestimate their capabilities.
Overly Optimistic Perspective: Attributed to cognitive development, secure attachments, and positive feedback (Goodvin et al., 2008; Verschueren, 2020). This optimism is supported by developmental factors and social experiences.
No Social Comparison: Young children do not compare their performance to others. They evaluate themselves independently of others.
Caregiving: Sensitive caregiving promotes self-esteem by supporting attempts, emphasizing effort, and providing realistic feedback (Brummelman & Sedikides, 2020). Parental support plays a key role in fostering self-esteem.
Middle Childhood
Self-esteem increases (Orth et al., 2018). Children develop a more realistic and stable sense of self-worth.
Children evaluate abilities more objectively, based on feedback from parents, teachers, and peers. Feedback from others influences self-evaluations.
Social Comparison: Children start comparing themselves to peers (Gerber, 2020; Harter, 2012a). The comparison with peers becomes a significant factor in self-esteem.
Those who depend on approval from others are at risk for poor self-esteem (Moore & Smith, 2018). Reliance on external validation can undermine self-esteem.
Specific Domains: Self-esteem becomes tied to academics, social life, and athletic ability (Orth et al., 2020). Children evaluate themselves in different areas of competence.
Abilities and Beliefs: Self-esteem tied to abilities that they view as important (Davis-Kean et al., 2009). Self-esteem is linked to the value placed on specific skills and talents.
Positive Parent-Child Interactions: Secure attachment predicts high self-esteem (Harris et al., 2017; Krauss et al., 2020; Magro et al., 2019). The quality of parent-child relationships impacts self-esteem.
Caregivers who are warm, express positive emotions, and acceptance nurture self-esteem (Brummelman, 2017; Verschueren, 2020). Parental warmth and acceptance promote positive self-evaluations.
Overvaluing Attributes: When parents overvalue children, they may develop narcissism (Brummelman, 2018). Inflated praise can lead to unrealistic self-perceptions.
Fostering Self-Esteem: Warm parent-child interactions, encouragement for realistic goals, and praise related to performance (Brummelman & Sedikides, 2020). Strategies for promoting healthy self-esteem.
Adolescence
Self-evaluations are differentiated. Adolescents evaluate themselves overall and in specific areas of competence.
Describe and evaluate themselves, overall and in specific areas (Esnaola et al., 2020; Orth et al., 2020). Self-esteem becomes more complex and nuanced.
Positive self-esteem when they evaluate themselves favorably in important areas. Positive self-evaluations in key areas contribute to overall self-esteem.
Decline in Early Adolescence: Typically declines at 11 years, lowest at 13, then rises (Orth, 2017b). Self-esteem often decreases during early adolescence before rebounding.
Due to transitions (body changes, self-comparisons) (Schaffhuser et al., 2017). This decline is linked to developmental and social factors.
Ethnic Differences: Black adolescents have higher self-esteem (Bachman et al., 2011; Erol & Orth, 2011; Louie & Wheaton, 2019). Ethnic identity can influence self-esteem.
Protected by close-knit communities that offer support and positive feedback (Rose et al., 2019). Community support buffers against negative self-evaluations.
Self-esteem buffers negative effects of discrimination (N. C. Smith & Nicholson, 2022). Self-esteem acts as a protective factor against the impact of discrimination.
Culture influences low self-evaluations (X. Chen & Graham, 2018). Cultural values can affect self-esteem levels.
Influence on Behavior: High self-esteem promotes confidence and willingness to reject poor advice (Baumeister & Vohs, 2018; Cvencek & Greenwald, 2020). Self-esteem is associated with positive behavioral outcomes.
More self-compassion and view failures as opportunities for self-awareness (Barry et al., 2015). Self-esteem is linked to resilience and self-improvement.
Low self-esteem is associated with risky behavior (Jackman & MacPhee, 2017; Lee et al., 2018; Oshri et al., 2017) and adjustment difficulties (Fiorilli et al., 2019; Orth, 2017b). Low self-esteem is associated with negative outcomes.
Family and Peers Contexts: High-quality parent-adolescent relations are associated with higher self-worth (Babore et al., 2017; Harris et al., 2015; Keizer et al., 2019; Miconi et al., 2017). Healthy family relationships promote self-esteem.
Peer acceptance can buffer a distant relationship with parents (Birkeland et al., 2014). Peer support can compensate for less supportive family dynamics.
Adulthood
Self-esteem increases from early to middle adulthood, peaking at 60 and remaining stable until 70, then declining (Orth & Robins, 2019; Orth et al., 2018). Self-esteem follows a predictable trajectory across adulthood.
Patterns apply across gender, ethnicity, and country. This pattern is consistent across various demographic groups.
Associated with positive emotional, social, and career outcomes. Self-esteem is linked to overall well-being and success.
Shifts in Social Roles: Parallels changing social roles (Hutteman et al., 2014). Social roles influence how adults view themselves.
Competence in new roles increases confidence. Mastery of new roles bolsters self-esteem.
Middle-aged adults invest in relationships at home and work (Marks et al., 2004). Strong social connections contribute to self-esteem.
Autonomy: Become more autonomous, less concerned with others' evaluations, and more concerned with self-chosen ideals (Ryff, 1991). Autonomy enhances self-esteem in adulthood.
Middle-aged adults accept both good and bad qualities (Ryff, 1995). Self-acceptance promotes psychological well-being.
Revised possible selves influence well-being (Orth et al., 2010). Adapting future expectations boosts self-esteem.
Late Adulthood: Social roles decline. Loss of social roles can affect self-esteem.
Loss of valued roles can contribute to declines (Orth et al., 2015). Role loss can negatively impact self-esteem.
Most maintain a positive view of themselves (Orth & Robins, 2019). Many older adults retain a positive self-image.
Older adults often view themselves in complex ways (Labouvie-Vief & Diehl, 1999). Older adults have a nuanced understanding of themselves.
They compartmentalize self-concept, focusing on strengths (Ready et al., 2012). Emphasizing strengths helps maintain self-esteem.
Identity
Answers to the question "Who are you?" Identity involves a sense of self-understanding and definition.
A coherent and consistent sense of self over time (Erikson, 1950). Identity provides a foundation for behavior and relationships.
Psychosocial Moratorium:
A time-out period allowing adolescents to explore possibilities. This is a period of exploration and experimentation.
Crucial for a successful identity search. This allows for the development of strong personal beliefs and goals.
Identity Status:
The degree to which individuals have explored possible selves and committed to beliefs and goals (Marcia, 1966). Identity status reflects the balance between exploration and commitment.
Four Categories:
Identity Diffusion: No exploration or commitment, pervasive uncertainty. Individuals lack direction and clarity.
Identity Foreclosure: Prematurely chosen identity without exploration, inflexible. Commitment without exploration leads to rigidity.
Moratorium: Active exploration of ideas, open to possibilities, some uncertainty. A stage of active questioning and searching.
Identity Achievement: Constructed sense of self through reflection, commitment to beliefs. A sense of clarity and self-understanding is achieved.
Domains of Identity:
Identity is formed in different areas, such as career, relationships, etc. Identity is multifaceted and varies across areas.
The pace and pattern of development vary across identity domains. Some areas may be explored earlier than others.
Broad umbrella domains: interpersonal and ideological. Interpersonal identity relates to relationships, while ideological identity relates to beliefs and values.
Influences on Identity Development:
Constructed through relationships and interactions with parents and peers. Social interactions shape identity formation.
Parents provide a sense of security and autonomy. Parental support fosters exploration and commitment.
Peers serve as a mirror in which adolescents view their emerging identities. Peers provide feedback and validation.
Romantic partners influence each other reciprocally. Romantic relationships influence identity through shared experiences.
Outcomes Associated With Identity Development:
Identity achievement is associated with high self-esteem and positive views. A clear sense of identity promotes well-being.
Young people in the moratorium status often feel puzzled. Exploration can be accompanied by confusion.
Young people who show identity foreclosure tend to take a rigid stance. Lack of exploration leads to inflexibility.
By late adolescence, identity diffusion is indicative of maladjustment. Pervasive uncertainty can lead to negative outcomes.
Lifespan Change in Identity:
Researchers believe Early adulthood, especially emerging adulthood, is an important time for identity development. This is the period of greatest exploration and change.
Exposure to new environments, independence, and cognition makes the college years ripe for identity development. Higher education provides opportunities for self-discovery.
Even adults who have achieved a sense of identity continue to develop and change. Identity is not fixed and can evolve over time.
Adulthood with changes in life circumstances, contexts, and developmental needs reconstructs identity. Life changes can prompt re-evaluation and adaptation.
Ethnic-Racial Identity
Sense of membership to an ethnic or racial group (Phinney & Ong, 2007; Rivas-Drake et al., 2014; Umaña-Taylor, 2016a). Ethnic-racial identity shapes self-perception and social interactions.
Understanding of Race and Ethnicity in Infancy and Childhood
Infancy:
Categorize people by appearance. Infants notice physical differences.
Prefer familiar social and racial stimuli. They show a preference for the familiar.
Become less able to recognize faces from unfamiliar ethnic-racial groups. Perceptual narrowing occurs early in life.
Childhood:
Cognitive abilities enable them to reason explicitly, but concretely, about ethnicity and race. Cognitive development influences understanding.
Associate observable characteristics with race. Concrete associations are made.
Middle Childhood:
Use ethnic and racial group terms as self-descriptors. Ethnic and racial labels are used in self-description.
Peers, school, and the community play a role. Social context influences awareness.
Development of Ethnic-Racial Identity
Influences experience, interpretation, and response to discrimination. Ethnic identity shapes perceptions of discrimination.
Develops and changes over time. Ethnic identity evolves through life.
Explore ethnic-racial identity by learning about cultural practices. Cultural immersion is important.
Three Statuses
Unexamined Status: Has not explored the meaning of ethnicity or race. Lack of awareness and exploration.
Exploration Status: Actively searching for information about ethnic and racial group membership. Active exploration and questioning.
Achievement Status: Explored ethnicity or race, considered its meaning, and internalized it. Internalization and understanding.
Influences on Ethnic-Racial Identity
Parents:
The family is an important context because warm family relationships are associated with well-developed ethnic identities. Family support fosters ethnic identity.
Parents promote ethnic and cultural socialization and pride. Cultural socialization is key.
Peers:
Peers and friends influence ethnic diversity by communicating experiences and beliefs about ethnicity and race. Peer interactions shape identity.
Peers provide a sense of community. A sense of belonging is important.
Teachers:
May convey stereotypical, discriminatory, or racist messages to students. Teachers can have both positive and negative influences.
Discrimination and Ethnic Identity
Adolescents of color may become increasingly aware of and sensitive to negative stereotypes. Awareness increases during adolescence.
Discrimination and ethnic-racial identity are interwoven and influence each other. The relationship is complex and reciprocal.
Ethnic-Racial Identity and Adjustment
A strong sense of ethnic-racial identity can reduce the negative impact of racial discrimination on adjustment. Ethnic identity buffers against discrimination.
Linked to school achievement. Academic success is tied to ethnic identity.
Show better socioemotional functioning and fewer emotional and behavior problems. Ethnic identity is associated with well-being.
Personalities
We view ourselves in more complicated ways as we age, but the content of our self-conceptions, our beliefs about ourselves, remain similar over adulthood as our personalities shift and adjust to situations. Understanding personality helps explain individual differences.
Trait Approach
Researchers categorized personality research into clusters, labeled as
The Big Five personality traits
Openness:
Curious, explorative, and creative. Linked to imagination and intellectual interests.
Conscientiousness:
Responsible, disciplined, task-oriented, and planful. Related to organization and reliability.
Extroversion:
Socially outgoing, high activity, enthusiastic. Associated with sociability and energy levels.
Agreeableness
Trusting, cooperative, helpful. Refers to compassion and empathy.
Neuroticism
Moodiness, fear, worry, insecurity. Linked to emotional instability.
Personality Traits in Childhood and Adolescence
Our personality traits emerge as temperament. Early temperament provides the foundation.
This, in turn, evolves into recognizable