Comprehensive Notes on Contemporary History: From the Great War to the Fall of the Soviet Union

Defining the Short Twentieth Century and the Long Nineteenth Century

The study of contemporary history is often framed by the chronological constructs proposed by historian Eric Hobsbawm. He defined the "Short Twentieth Century" as the period spanning from $1914$ (the start of the First World War) to $1991$ (the collapse of the Soviet Union). With the fall of the USSR, the Russian Federation emerged, but it ceased to be the bipolar geopolitical power center it once was. Vladimir Putin has described this collapse as a catastrophe, which allowed for the creation of a unipolar world led by the United States. Conversely, the "Long Nineteenth Century" is viewed as a period beginning in the second half of the $18^{th}$ century, coinciding with the Industrial Revolutions and the American and French Revolutions, and concluding with the outbreak of the Great War in $1914$.

The late $18^{th}$ century revolutions introduced nationalism, a force that would become a primary catalyst for the First World War. This era also saw the emergence of racial tensions and gender issues that marked class contrasts. In the latter half of the $19^{th}$ century, these tensions deteriorated as traditional monarchies like France and Great Britain faced the rise of new states such as Germany and Italy. This period was characterized by the "Nationalization of the Masses," a process by which states transformed inhabitants into citizens by transmitting shared values through institutions like schools. This created "imagined communities," where citizens felt a sense of belonging to a national culture despite never knowing most of their compatriots personally.

The Outbreak and Nature of the First World War

The immediate casus belli for the First World War was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo on June $28$, $1914$, by Gavrilo Princip. This event triggered a conflict between the independent Kingdom of Serbia and the Austro-Hungarian Empire, which quickly escalated into a global war involving two major blocs. The Central Powers (Bloc of Empires) included Austria, Germany, and the Ottoman Empire, joined by Bulgaria in $1915$. The Entente Powers (Allied Powers) consisted of Serbia, the Russian Empire, France, and Great Britain, later joined by Italy in May $1915$, and Portugal, Romania, Greece, and the United States in $1917$.

Initially, the war was met with nationalistic enthusiasm, splitting internationalist socialist movements that previously prioritized class struggle. The reality of the war was far grimmer than the romanticized depictions found in $19^{th}$-century literature. It shifted from a war of movement to a static "trench warfare." Technical advancements, often described as "miracles" of military tech, included machine guns capable of firing hundreds of rounds per minute, high-precision cannons, grenades, and combat aircraft. Notably, poison gas (asphyxiating gas) was first used by the Germans in Belgium and later by Fascist Italy. The war resulted in approximately $10,000,000$ deaths and a profound "brutalization" of political life.

Propaganda, Atrocities, and the Armenian Genocide

Communication in the Great War was defined by intense propaganda and the spread of "fake news" to maintain the domestic front. An example was the unconfirmed story of the "Crucifixion of Ypres" in April $1915$. Marc Bloch noted that false news arises from pre-existing collective representations. In this context, pre-war national-patriotic language made images of sacrifice and Christian tradition acceptable tools for mobilizing the masses.

A significant atrocity occurred in May $1915$ during the conflict between the Ottoman and Tsarist empires: the deportation of the Armenians. Approximately $370,000$ Armenians reached Syria and $300,000$ reached Russian Armenia, but an unspecified number between $300,000$ and $1,000,000$ died during the transfers due to atrocious conditions. Before the war, there were $1,500,000$ Armenians in Turkey; afterward, only $70,000$ remained. This is widely considered a planned genocide. Opposition to the war's brutality was minimal, limited to few socialist parties, neutral countries, and Pope Benedict XV, who famously called the war a "useless slaughter."

The Italian Entry into the Great War

Italy initially declared neutrality because the Triple Alliance was a defensive pact, and Austria had not been attacked. Geopolitically, Italy was uncertain if it would receive the "irredentist" lands (Trento and Trieste), and militarily, the army was exhausted from the Libyan war against the Ottomans. Prime Minister Antonio Salandra eventually overrode parliamentary neutrality through the secret Treaty of London in April $1915$. In exchange for victory, Italy was promised Trento, Trieste, Istria, Dalmatia, a Turkish province, and Greek islands.

On May $23$, to avoid an institutional crisis after the King reappointed Salandra, Parliament voted for war, with hostilities officially beginning on May $24$, $1915$. Pro-war propaganda was spearheaded by figures like Gabriele D’Annunzio, whose "patriotic tour" combined biblical and Risorgimento references to stir interventionist sentiment. On the front, General Luigi Cadorna's harsh leadership led to failed offensives and low morale, eventually resulting in the disastrous defeat at Caporetto in $1917$. Cadorna was replaced by General Armando Diaz, who improved soldier conditions and utilized patriotic propaganda focusing on defending the "hearth and home."

The Crisis of 1917 and the Russian Revolutions

The year $1917$ was the most difficult of the war, marked by mutinies, strikes, and the use of "decimations" (executing one in ten soldiers) to enforce discipline. Russia experienced the most radical change. On March $8$, $1917$ (February $23$ in the old calendar), a women's march for bread in Petrograd sparked a revolution. Tsar Nicholas II abdicated, ending the Romanov dynasty. A provisional government was formed, but it faced a "dual power" dynamic with the Soviets (councils of workers and soldiers).

Vladimir Lenin returned from exile in April $1917$, publishing his "April Theses," which demanded "Peace, Land, and Bread" and a transition of power to the Soviets. Following a failed coup by General Kornilov, the Bolsheviks gained prestige as the "saviors of the Revolution." In October $1917$, the Bolsheviks staged a coup, seizing the Winter Palace. They quickly issued decrees for peace and land redistribution. However, after losing the November elections for the Constituent Assembly, the Bolsheviks dissolved the assembly by force in January $1918$, establishing a single-party dictatorship.

The Russian Civil War and the Rise of the USSR

Following the harsh Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March $1918$, Russia descended into a Civil War. The "Red Army," organized by Leon Trotsky, faced the "White Armies" (pro-Tsarist forces) and foreign intervention from France and Britain. To survive, the Bolsheviks implemented "War Communism," which included the forced requisition of grain, leading to a black market and famine. By $1921$, Lenin introduced the New Policy Economy (NEP), allowing for a small amount of private trade and enriching a class of peasants known as "Kulaks."

In $1922$, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was established. After Lenin's death in $1924$, a power struggle emerged between Joseph Stalin (advocating "Socialism in One Country") and Leon Trotsky (advocating "Permanent Revolution"). Stalin utilized his position as General Secretary to appoint loyalists, eventually expelling Trotsky from the party and the country. The Soviet regime also implemented radical social changes, including legalizing divorce and abortion and promoting state-controlled education over religious influence.

Post-War Settlements and Geopolitical Shifts

In January $1918$, US President Woodrow Wilson proposed his "$14$ Points," emphasizing disarmament, free trade, and the self-determination of peoples. The Paris Peace Conference in $1919$ resulted in the Treaty of Versailles, which imposed "punitive peace" on Germany. Germany had to return Alsace-Lorraine to France, cede territory for the Danzig corridor, reduce its army to $100,000$ units, and pay $132 \times 10^9$ gold marks in reparations. This resentment would eventually contribute to the outbreak of the Second World War.

The League of Nations was founded in $1920$ in Geneva but was weakened by the US Senate's refusal to join. The Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires collapsed, leading to the creation of states like Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, and Turkey (following Mustafa Kemal's revolution). In the Middle East, Britain and France established "Mandates" over territories like Syria, Palestine, and Iraq. Ireland achieved autonomy in $1921$ after a conflict between Sinn Féin and the British, though the region of Ulster remained part of the UK.

Economic Crisis and the Great Depression

The post-war period was marked by violent inflation, particularly in Germany, where the government printed massive amounts of paper money to pay debts. This destroyed the savings of the middle class. While the US experienced the "Roaring Twenties" with mass consumption of radios, cars, and appliances purchased on credit, the global economy was fragile. On October $29$, $1929$ ("Black Tuesday"), the Wall Street stock market crashed, leading to the Great Depression.

In the US, unemployment reached $13,000,000$ by $1932$. President Herbert Hoover’s liberalist approach failed, leading to the election of Franklin Delano Roosevelt in $1932$. Roosevelt introduced the "New Deal," which included bank reforms, public works projects (like the Tennessee Valley Authority), and social security. He communicated with the public via "fireside chats" on the radio. Meanwhile, Europe struggled with instability; France faced fluctuating governments, and the UK saw the rise of the Labour Party and the devaluation of the pound.

The Rise of Fascism in Italy

Post-war Italy faced "Red Biennium" ($1919$-$1920$), characterized by factory occupations and strikes. Nationalists lamented the "mutilated victory" after failing to obtain Dalmatia and Fiume at Versailles. Gabriele D’Annunzio led a rogue occupation of Fiume in $1919$. In this chaotic environment, Benito Mussolini founded the "Fasci di Combattimento." By late $1920$, Fascist "squads" (Blackshirts) began using violence against socialists and labor unions, funded by fearful landowners.

Following the March on Rome in October $1922$, King Victor Emmanuel III appointed Mussolini as Prime Minister. Mussolini gradually dismantled democracy, particularly after the murder of socialist deputy Giacomo Matteotti in $1924$. Between $1925$ and $1926$, "Fascistissime Laws" were passed, banning other parties, abolishing strikes, and making the government responsible only to the King. The Lateran Pacts of $1929$ reconciled the state with the Catholic Church, recognizing the Vatican's sovereignty and making Catholicism the state religion.

Nazism and the Totalitarian State in Germany

The Great Depression hit Germany hard, with unemployment reaching $30\times 10^{-2}$ of the workforce ($6,000,000$ people). Adolf Hitler's National Socialist Party (NSDAP) capitalized on this, blaming Jews and communists for Germany's woes. Hitler was appointed Chancellor in January $1933$. Using the Reichstag fire as a pretext, he suspended civil liberties and passed the Enabling Act, giving him dictatorial powers.

Hitler implemented the "Gleichschaltung" (coordination) to align all institutions with Nazi ideology. In $1934$, during the "Night of the Long Knives," he purged the SA leadership to secure the support of the army. Nazi demographics focused on increasing the "Aryan" population through natalist policies and eliminating "unfit" individuals via the T4 euthanasia program. The Nuremberg Laws ($1935$) stripped Jews of citizenship and prohibited marriage with non-Jews. This culminated in "Kristallnacht" in $1938$, a night of systemic violence and arrests against the Jewish community.

Stalinism and the Second World War

In the USSR, Stalin launched Five-Year Plans to transform the country into an industrial power. He enforced the collectivization of agriculture, liquidating the "Kulaks" as a class. A state-induced famine in Ukraine ($1932$-$1933$), the Holodomor, resulted in $7$ to $10,000,000$ deaths. Stalin's rule was defined by the "Great Purges" ($1936$-$1938$), where members of the party and the military were executed or sent to the Gulag system.

The Second World War began on September $1$, $1939$, with Germany's invasion of Poland, following the secret Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact with the USSR. Germany utilized "Blitzkrieg" (lightning war) to conquer most of Europe, including France. Italy entered the war in $1940$ but suffered humiliating defeats in Greece and North Africa, becoming a subordinate ally to Germany. In June $1941$, Hitler launched Operation Barbarossa against the USSR, though the German advance was stopped at Moscow and later defeated at Stalingrado in $1943$. The US entered the war after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December $7$, $1941$.

The Holocaust, Resistance, and the End of War

The Nazi regime implemented the "Final Solution" in $1942$, leading to the genocide of $6,000,000$ Jews in death camps like Auschwitz. Resistance movements formed across Europe, such as the CLN in Italy and the Free French led by Charles de Gaulle. Mussolini fell from power on July $25$, $1943$, and Italy signed an armistice on September $8$. The Allied landing in Normandy (D-Day) on June $6$, $1944$, and the Soviet advance from the East led to Germany's surrender in May $1945$. The war in the Pacific ended after the US dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August $1945$.

The Cold War and the Bipolar World

Post-$1945$, the world was divided between the US and the USSR. The "Truman Doctrine" ($1947$) and the "Marshall Plan" were designed to contain communism in Europe. The "Berlin Blockade" and the creation of NATO ($1949$) and the Warsaw Pact ($1955$) solidified the division. Major flashpoints included the Korean War ($1950$-$1953$), the Cuban Missile Crisis ($1962$), and the Vietnam War. In the USSR, Nikita Khrushchev began a process of "de-Stalinization" in $1956$, though he crushed uprisings in Hungary and later built the Berlin Wall ($1961$).

Decolonization and the Fall of the Soviet Union

The post-war period saw the end of European empires in Asia and Africa. The "Non-Aligned Movement," formed at the Bandung Conference ($1955$), sought a third path between the superpowers. In the Middle East, the creation of Israel in $1948$ led to ongoing conflict with Arab nations. The USSR eventually entered a period of "stagnation" under Leonid Brezhnev. In $1985$, Mikhail Gorbachev introduced "Glasnost" (transparency) and "Perestroika" (restructuring) to save the system, but these reforms led to the collapse of communist regimes in Eastern Europe in $1989$ and the final dissolution of the USSR in $1991$, marking the end of the Cold War and the Short Twentieth Century.