Sociology Final Exam Notes

deviance: defined as any behavior that violates widely-accepted cultural norms within a society

absolutist approach: deviance is defined by fixed norms and that actions are inherently good or bad, regardless of context or culture

relativist approach: focuses on how social norms and definitions of deviant behavior vary across different cultures and contexts, emphasizes that deviance is not a fixed quality but a label assigned by social groups

medicalization: the process whereby previously non-medical aspects of life are defined and treated as medical problems

medicalization of deviance (Conrad 1982): the process where behaviors or conditions previously viewed as morally or socially problematic are redefined as medical issues; this transformation often leads to the involvement of medical professionals in addressing these behaviors

criminalization of deviance: the tendency of our society to allow deviant behavior to be defined by and handled by the criminal justice system (conflict theorists argue that criminalization works to insure those in the lowest social classes are consistently defined as deviant)

New Jim Crow - Three Stages

roundup - vast numbers of people through sweeps in poor communities of color

formal control - involves poor legal representation leading to plea deals, harsh sentences, and sentences in dangerous prisons

invisible punishment - assures difficulty reintegrating to society; convicts face discrimination in housing, employment, removal of voting rights, jury service, and public benefits

deterrence theory: the idea that if you make the punishment for certain types of crimes severe enough the crimes will be prevented

deterrence theory to be effective - the offender must believe:

they will be caught

the threatened punishment will happen

the punishment will be worse than their current life

concern with conflict theory that deterrence results in poor minorities being overrepresented in prison and on death row; innocence project (Scheck) has freed 251 innocent people in prison (including 9 on death row) and found 158 real perpetrators - these prisoners spent an average of 14 years in prison (roughly 70% were racial/ethnic minorities; most were poor)

white-collar crime - refers to any offense committed in the context of an individuals legitimate occupation during the course of their regular business activities (the highest monetary cost of any crime, some of the lowest amounts of prosecution, among the shortest prison terms upon conviction)

deviance as functional: society of saints…”crime is the most normal of all behavior” (Durkheim 1895)

strain theory(Merton 1968): also referred to as the anomie theory of deviance (according to Merton every society has an ultimate goal and an acceptable means to achieve that goal; the desire to earn the goal using the acceptable means is what motivates people and keeps them behaving normally).

deviance as dysfunction: deviance occurs when the structures break down and some people are disconnected from the goals or the means of achievement

ritualism: the individual continues to adhere to the acceptable means while giving up on the goals; simply going through the motions with no desire to succeed.

innovation: continuing to pursue the goal but using illegitimate means to do so.

retreatism: abandoning both the goal and means of achievement and fundamentally withdrawing from society; may involve total withdrawal from society or the substituting of a new goal/means for the individual.

rebellion: the substitution of your own goals and means along with the desire to fundamentally change the society and structures

conformity: continuing to adhere to the societal goals despite the strain.

deviance as learned behavior:

control/bond theory (Hirschi 1969): argues that what we would currently call “deviance” is a human’s natural state of being (conformity is the unique behavior that must be explained)

if left to ourselves, humans become hedonistic and will do whatever feels good at a given time (things that, to us, would now be considered deviant)

most people resist following their “deviant” instincts because of social bonds formed between themselves and people/things within a society (to behave in a deviant way would put these bonds in jeopardy so we follow the rules rather than risk the bond)

Hirschi: deviance is prevented if everyone has bonded well to society

differential association (Sutherland 1937) is sometimes more generally referred to as “cultural transmission)(DA argues that people become deviant due to association with deviant people)

Sutherland says that deviants learn not just the idea of deviant behavior but the behaviors, motives, justifications, rationales, and techniques from other deviants. (“what if one day I say that this professor thing isn’t working and I become a prostitute?...you’re welcome to have that image in your head.” - prof. Carrothers)

labeling theory (Becker 1963): concentrates more on the meaning associated with deviance than the act itself

Becker argues that deviance is not a behavior but a consequence of a behavior

behavior is only seen as deviant once it is noticed and labeled as unacceptable (for Becker there is no such thing as a deviant act, only the repercussions of having your behavior labeled as deviant)

primary deviance: initial violations that tend to provoke little reaction from society and/or change in self-concept of the individual.

secondary deviance: causes a change to the individual's self-concept due to repeated labeling by society (Lemert 1972).

individuals now work to meet the expectations of the label resulting in increased deviance.

Erving Goffman defines a stigma (1963) as a deeply discrediting characteristic, widely viewed as an insurmountable obstacle, that prevents “completely competent or morally trustworthy behavior”.

for Goffman, if you have a stigma you will never be seen as normal or equal by the rest of society.

deviance as a label:

stigmas cannot be seen as positive, if they’re positive (or even neutral) they aren’t stigmatizing.

stigmas are created by society, society as a whole will decide if something is stigmatizing or not.

Goffman is not saying this is good, he’s simply pointing out the unequal treatment the stigmatized will almost certainly receive.

Goffman's basic premise: you must be able to give a believable performance.

three categories of stigma:

physical stigma or defects of the body

character stigma or defects of the mind, personality or character

tribal stigma or membership in a devalued social group

power is the ability to exercise one's will over others, and to make your wishes happen despite the opposition of others (Weber highlights 3 types of power):

force: physical power or coercion

influence: the power to persuade others

authority: the institutionalized power recognized by those the power is held over (authority is gained because people decide to recognize you as powerful).

three types of authority:

traditional authority: power through custom, no concern for the personal characteristics or abilities of the powerful individual.

legal-rational authority: power attained through rules of a society usually given based on a specific area of competence, society creates powerful positions and then fills the positions with people uniquely qualified to do that job.

charismatic authority: power through personal view, purest form of authority in that the individual only has power because a group of people has chosen to follow that person and see him/her/them as powerful. “The rizzler huh…apparently…I still can’t wrap my head around that one.” (Prof. Carr)

inequality: the unequal distribution of power, conditions in which members of a society have differing amounts of wealth, prestige, and power.

inequality is a cultural universal in that it exists in some form in every society

stratification: the ranking of entire groups of people that perpetuates unequal rewards, power and life chance

life chances (Weber 1922) are opportunities for individuals to provide themselves with material goods, positive living conditions and favorable life experiences

we often use existing inequalities to stratify; stratification then leads to continuing inequality

minority/underrepresented groups are a subordinate group whose members have significantly less power and control over their lives than do the members of the dominant group

the minority group designation is one of power not numbers

ascribed status: a position assigned by society with no regard for unique characteristics or abilities of the individual

ascribed statuses are characteristics that society has deemed important and would like to know about anyone within society

an individual has little control over their ascribed status

stratifying variable: race, ethnicity, class, gender, sexual orientation, and ableness

intersectionality (Crenshaw 1989): a concept used to describe the ways in which forms of inequality and stratification (racism, sexism, homophobia, transphobia, ableism, classism, etc.) are interconnected and should not be examined separately from one another

matrix of domination (Hill-Collins 1991): refers to cross-cutting memberships of race, class, gender, and sexual group memberships that determine the amount of control one has over their lives

knowledge: the common, accepted and scientific basis for knowing about something

wisdom: information gained by dealing with oppression in a society controlled by another group

privilege refers to structural advantages given a person in a specific group which the person who holds the advantage is likely to be unaware

sometimes described as an “invisible knapsack of unearned assets” which can be counted on each time they are needed but about which you are meant to remain oblivious (McIntosh 1988)

privilege is more about the absence of inconvenience or the absence of impediment than about the presence of some obvious, tangible awards

the advantages seem “normal” to anyone in the culture, the patterns are rarely questioned or changed

prejudice are negative feelings felt toward an entire group of people; usually referring to broad preconceptions held about some group (the thought that leads to action)

discrimination is the process of denying equal rights and opportunities to groups and group members based on prejudice or other arbitrary reasons (an action on the thought)

symbolic/modern prejudice refers to subtle negative attitudes directed toward minority groups

results from a culture which no longer accepts outward/blatant prejudice but whose members may still hold negative feelings against certain groups

microaggressions are indirect, subtle, or unintentional comments or actions that express prejudice against a marginalized group or person

each event, observation and experience is not necessarily particularly striking in and of themselves

often, they are never meant to hurt, these acts are done with little conscious awareness of their meanings and effects

instead, their slow accumulation over a lifetime is in part what defines a marginalized experience, making explanation of and communication with someone who does not share this identity particularly difficult

microaggressions create and enforce uncomfortable, violent and unsafe realities onto peoples’ environments

the culture appears open and accepting but the negative feelings exist just below the surface and are expressed at “appropriate” times