Strategies for Enhancement in Food Production
Strategies for Enhancement in Food Production
Introduction
The increasing global population necessitates enhanced food production.
Biological principles in animal husbandry and plant breeding play a crucial role in increasing food production.
Embryo transfer technology and tissue culture techniques are vital for enhancing food production.
Animal Husbandry
Animal husbandry is the agricultural practice of breeding and raising livestock.
It's a vital skill for farmers, combining science and art.
It involves the care and breeding of livestock such as buffaloes, cows, pigs, horses, cattle, sheep, camels, and goats.
Also includes poultry farming and fisheries.
Fisheries involve rearing, catching, and selling fish, molluscs (shell-fish), and crustaceans (prawns, crabs).
Animals like bees, silkworms, prawns, crabs, fishes, birds, pigs, cattle, sheep, and camels have been used for products like milk, eggs, meat, wool, silk, and honey since time immemorial.
More than 70% of the world's livestock population is in India and China.
Their contribution to world farm produce is only 25%, indicating low productivity per unit.
Newer technologies, along with conventional practices, are needed to improve quality and productivity.
Management of Farms and Farm Animals
A professional approach to traditional farm management can boost food production.
Dairy Farm Management
Dairying involves managing animals for milk and its products for human consumption.
Dairy farm management focuses on processes and systems that increase yield and improve milk quality.
Milk yield depends on the quality of breeds.
Selection of good breeds with high yielding potential and disease resistance is important.
Cattle must be well-housed, have adequate water, and be disease-free.
Feeding should be scientific, emphasizing quality and quantity of fodder.
Stringent cleanliness and hygiene are crucial during milking, storage, and transport.
Mechanization reduces direct contact with handlers.
Regular inspections and record-keeping are necessary to identify and rectify problems early.
Mandatory regular visits by a veterinary doctor.
Poultry Farm Management
Poultry includes domesticated fowl (birds) used for food or eggs, typically chicken and ducks, and sometimes turkey and geese.
Selection of disease-free and suitable breeds is important.
Proper and safe farm conditions, feed and water, and hygiene and healthcare are essential components.
Be aware of outbreaks like the 'bird flu virus'.
Animal Breeding
Animal breeding aims to increase the yield of animals and improve desirable qualities.
Breeding involves selecting for specific characters, which may differ based on the animal.
A breed is a group of animals related by descent and similar in most characters like appearance, features, size, and configuration.
Inbreeding is breeding between animals of the same breed, while outbreeding involves crosses between different breeds.
Inbreeding
Inbreeding is the mating of closely related individuals within the same breed for 4-6 generations.
Superior males and females of the same breed are mated in pairs.
Progeny are evaluated, and superior males and females are selected for further mating.
Superior females (cows or buffaloes) produce more milk per lactation.
Superior males (bulls) give rise to superior progeny.
Inbreeding increases homozygosity and is necessary for evolving a pure line in animals.
It exposes harmful recessive genes, which are then eliminated by selection.
It also helps accumulate superior genes and eliminate less desirable genes, increasing productivity.
Continued inbreeding can reduce fertility and productivity, known as inbreeding depression.
Selected animals should be mated with unrelated superior animals of the same breed to restore fertility and yield.
Out-breeding
Out-breeding involves breeding unrelated animals, either within the same breed (out-crossing), between different breeds (cross-breeding), or between different species (inter-specific hybridization).
Out-crossing
Out-crossing is the mating of animals within the same breed with no common ancestors for 4-6 generations.
The offspring is known as an out-cross.
It's the best breeding method for animals below average in productivity.
A single outcross can overcome inbreeding depression.
Cross-breeding
Superior males of one breed are mated with superior females of another breed.
It combines desirable qualities of two different breeds.
Progeny hybrid animals may be used for commercial production or inbred and selected to develop new stable breeds.
Hisardale is a new breed of sheep developed in Punjab by crossing Bikaneri ewes and Marino rams.
Interspecific hybridization
Male and female animals of two different related species are mated.
Progeny may combine desirable features of both parents, e.g., the mule.
Controlled Breeding
Controlled breeding experiments use artificial insemination, where semen is collected and injected into the reproductive tract of the selected female.
Semen can be used immediately or frozen for later use and transport.
Artificial insemination helps overcome problems of normal matings.
Multiple Ovulation Embryo Transfer Technology (MOET)
MOET improves chances of successful hybrid production.
Cows are administered hormones (FSH-like activity) to induce follicular maturation and super ovulation, producing 6-8 eggs instead of one.
The animal is either mated with an elite bull or artificially inseminated.
Fertilized eggs (8–32 cells stages) are recovered non-surgically and transferred to surrogate mothers.
The genetic mother can undergo another round of super ovulation.
This technology is used for cattle, sheep, rabbits, buffaloes, mares, etc.
High milk-yielding breeds and high-quality meat-yielding bulls have been bred successfully to increase herd size in a short time.
Bee-keeping (Apiculture)
Apiculture is the maintenance of honeybee hives for honey production; an age-old cottage industry.
Honey has high nutritive value and is used in indigenous medicine.
Honeybees produce beeswax, used in cosmetics and polishes.
Increased demand for honey has led to large-scale bee-keeping practices.
Bee-keeping can be practiced where there are sufficient bee pastures like wild shrubs, fruit orchards, and cultivated crops.
Apis indica is the most common species reared.
Beehives can be kept in courtyards, verandahs, or roofs.
Bee-keeping requires specialized knowledge.
Important factors for successful bee-keeping:
Knowledge of bee nature and habits
Selection of suitable location for beehives
Catching and hiving of swarms (group of bees)
Management of beehives during different seasons
Handling and collection of honey and beeswax
Bees are pollinators of many crop species like sunflower, Brassica, apple, and pear.
Keeping beehives in crop fields during flowering increases pollination efficiency and improves crop and honey yield.
Fisheries
Fishery is an industry devoted to catching, processing, or selling fish, shellfish, or other aquatic animals.
A large population depends on fish, fish products, and aquatic animals like prawn, crab, lobster, and edible oyster for food.
Common freshwater fishes include Catla, Rohu, and common carp.
Marine fishes include Hilsa, Sardines, Mackerel, and Pomfrets.
Fisheries have an important place in the Indian economy.
It provides income and employment to millions of fishermen and farmers, particularly in coastal states.
Aquaculture and pisciculture have increased the production of aquatic plants and animals.
The 'Blue Revolution' aims to mirror the success of the 'Green Revolution'.
Plant Breeding
Traditional farming yields limited biomass.
Better management practices and acreage increase yield to a limited extent.
Plant breeding increases yields significantly.
The Green Revolution in India increased food production, meeting national requirements and allowing exports, largely through plant breeding techniques.
What is Plant Breeding?
Plant breeding is the purposeful manipulation of plant species to create desired plant types with better cultivation, yields, and disease resistance.
Conventional plant breeding has been practiced for thousands of years.
Major food crops are derived from domesticated varieties.
Classical plant breeding involves crossing or hybridization of pure lines, followed by artificial selection.
Modern plant breeding uses molecular genetic tools.
Traits breeders aim to incorporate include increased crop yield, improved quality, tolerance to environmental stresses, resistance to pathogens, and tolerance to insect pests.
Plant Breeding Programme Steps
Plant breeding programs are carried out systematically worldwide in government institutions and commercial companies.
Collection of variability
Genetic variability is the foundation of any breeding program.
Pre-existing genetic variability is available from wild relatives of the crop.
Collection and preservation of all different wild varieties, species, and relatives, followed by evaluation, is essential.
The entire collection of plants/seeds with diverse alleles for all genes in a given crop is called germplasm collection.
Evaluation and selection of parents
Germplasm is evaluated to identify plants with desirable combinations of characters.
Selected plants are multiplied and used in hybridization. Pure lines are created whenever desirable and possible.
Cross hybridization among the selected parents
Desired characters are often combined from two different plants (parents).
For example, high protein quality from one parent may need to be combined with disease resistance from another parent.
Cross-hybridizing produces hybrids that genetically combine the desired characters.
This is a time-consuming process because pollen grains from the desirable male parent must be placed on the stigma of the flowers selected as the female parent.
It’s not always guaranteed that hybrids will combine the desired characters.
Selection and testing of superior recombinants
Selecting plants with the desired character combination from the progeny of the hybrids.
The selection process is crucial and requires careful scientific evaluation.
The process yields plants superior to both parents.
These are self-pollinated for several generations until they reach uniformity (homozygosity) to prevent segregation in the progeny.
Testing, release, and commercialization of new cultivars
Newly selected lines are evaluated for yield, agronomic traits, quality, and disease resistance.
Evaluation occurs in research fields under ideal conditions.
Testing in farmers’ fields follows for at least three growing seasons across various agroclimatic zones.
The material is evaluated against the best available local crop cultivar.
Agriculture accounts for approximately 33% of India’s GDP and employs nearly 62% of the population.
After independence, India faced the challenge of producing enough food for the increasing population.
The development of high-yielding varieties of wheat and rice in the mid-1960s resulted in a dramatic increase in food production (Green Revolution).
Specific Crop Improvements
Wheat and Rice
From 1960 to 2000, wheat production increased from million tonnes to million tonnes, while rice production increased from million tonnes to million tonnes.
This was due to the development of semi-dwarf varieties of wheat and rice.
Norman E. Borlaug developed semi-dwarf wheat at the International Centre for Wheat and Maize Improvement in Mexico.
In 1963, varieties such as Sonalika and Kalyan Sona, which were high yielding and disease-resistant, were introduced in India.
Semi-dwarf rice varieties were derived from IR-8 (International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Philippines) and Taichung Native-1 (Taiwan).
These derivatives were introduced in 1966.
Later, better-yielding semi-dwarf varieties Jaya and Ratna were developed in India.
Sugar cane
Saccharum barberi, grown in north India, had poor sugar content and yield.
Saccharum officinarum, grown in south India, had thicker stems and higher sugar content but did not grow well in north India.
These two species were successfully crossed to create sugarcane varieties combining high yield, thick stems, high sugar content, and the ability to grow in north India.
Millets
Hybrid maize, jowar, and bajra have been successfully developed in India.
Hybrid breeding has led to the development of several high-yielding varieties resistant to water stress.
Plant Breeding for Disease Resistance
Fungal, bacterial, and viral pathogens affect the yield of cultivated crop species, especially in tropical climates.
Crop losses can be significant, up to 20-30% or even total.
Breeding and developing disease-resistant cultivars enhances food production and reduces dependence on fungicides and bacteriocides.
Resistance of the host plant prevents the pathogen from causing disease and is determined by the genetic constitution of the host plant.
It is important to know about the causative organism and the mode of transmission.
Examples of diseases:
Fungi: Rusts (e.g., brown rust of wheat), red rot of sugarcane, late blight of potato
Bacteria: Black rot of crucifers
Viruses: Tobacco mosaic, turnip mosaic
Methods of breeding for disease resistance:
Breeding is carried out by conventional breeding techniques or by mutation breeding.
The conventional method of breeding for disease resistance is hybridization and selection.
Steps: screening germplasm for resistance sources, hybridization of selected parents, selection and evaluation of hybrids, and testing and release of new varieties.
Examples of crop varieties bred for disease resistance (see Table 9.1):
Wheat (Himgiri): Leaf and stripe rust, hill bunt
Brassica (Pusa swarnim): White rust (Karan rai)
Cauliflower (Pusa Shubhra, Pusa Snowball K-1): Black rot and Curl blight black rot
Cowpea (Pusa Komal): Bacterial blight
Chilli (Pusa Sadabahar): Chilly mosaic virus, Tobacco mosaic virus and Leaf curl
Conventional breeding is often limited by the availability of disease resistance genes in crop varieties or wild relatives.
Inducing mutations and screening for resistance can identify desirable genes.
Other breeding methods used are selection among somaclonal variants and genetic engineering.
Mutation is the process by which genetic variations are created through changes in the base sequence within genes, resulting in a new character or trait.
Mutations can be artificially induced through chemicals or radiations (like gamma radiations), and plants with desirable characters can be used in breeding (mutation breeding).
In mung bean, resistance to yellow mosaic virus and powdery mildew were induced by mutations.
Wild relatives of cultivated species may have resistant characters but low yields.
Resistance to yellow mosaic virus in bhindi (Abelmoschus esculentus) was transferred from a wild species, resulting in a new variety called Parbhani kranti.
Transfer of resistance genes is achieved by sexual hybridization between the target and the source plant, followed by selection.
Plant Breeding for Developing Resistance to Insect Pests
Insect and pest infestation is a major cause of crop destruction.
Insect resistance in host crop plants may be due to morphological, biochemical, or physiological characteristics.
Examples:
Hairy leaves: Resistance to jassids in cotton and cereal leaf beetle in wheat
Solid stems in wheat: Non-preference by the stem sawfly
Smooth-leaved and nectar-less cotton: Do not attract bollworms
High aspartic acid, low nitrogen and sugar content in maize: Resistance to maize stem borers
Breeding methods for insect pest resistance are the same as for other agronomic traits.
Sources of resistance genes may be cultivated varieties, germplasm collections, or wild relatives.
Examples of crop varieties bred for insect pest resistance (see Table 9.2):
Brassica (Pusa Gaurav): Aphids (rapeseed mustard)
Flat bean (Pusa Sem 2, Pusa Sem 3): Jassids, aphids, and fruit borer
Okra (Bhindi) (Pusa Sawani, Pusa A-4): Shoot and Fruit borer
Plant Breeding for Improved Food Quality
More than million people worldwide lack adequate food to meet daily requirements.
Three billion people suffer from micronutrient, protein, and vitamin deficiencies or ‘hidden hunger’.
Diets lacking essential micronutrients increase the risk for disease, reduce lifespan, and reduce mental abilities.
Biofortification (breeding crops with higher levels of vitamins, minerals, protein, and healthier fats) is the most practical means to improve public health.
Objectives of breeding for improved nutritional quality:
Protein content and quality
Oil content and quality
Vitamin content
Micronutrient and mineral content
Examples:
Maize hybrids with twice the amount of lysine and tryptophan were developed in 2000.
Wheat variety Atlas 66, with high protein content, has been used as a donor for improving cultivated wheat.
An iron-fortified rice variety containing over five times as much iron as in commonly consumed varieties has been developed.
The Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, has released several vegetable crops rich in vitamins and minerals:
Vitamin A enriched carrots, spinach, pumpkin
Vitamin C enriched bitter gourd, bathua, mustard, tomato
Iron and calcium enriched spinach and bathua
Protein enriched beans (broad, lablab, French, and garden peas)
Single Cell Protein (SCP)
Conventional agricultural production may not meet the food demand due to increasing population.
The shift from grain to meat diets increases demand for cereals (3-10 Kg of grain to produce 1 Kg of meat).
More than 25% of the human population suffers from hunger and malnutrition.
Single Cell Protein (SCP) is an alternative source of protein for animal and human nutrition.
Microbes are grown on an industrial scale as a good protein source.
Blue-green algae like Spirulina can be grown on wastewater from potato processing plants, straw, molasses, animal manure, and sewage to produce large quantities rich in protein, minerals, fats, carbohydrates, and vitamins.
This also reduces environmental pollution.
Bacterial species like Methylophilus methylotrophus can produce 25 tonnes of protein due to high biomass production and growth rate.
Edible mushrooms and large-scale mushroom culture indicate that microscopic fungi can be acceptable as food.
Tissue Culture
Tissue culture developed as traditional breeding techniques failed to keep pace with demand and provide efficient systems for crop improvement.
Tissue culture involves regenerating whole plants from explants (any part of a plant taken out and grown in a test tube) under sterile conditions in special nutrient media.
The capacity to generate a whole plant from any cell/explant is called totipotency.
The nutrient medium must provide a carbon source (sucrose), inorganic salts, vitamins, amino acids, and growth regulators (auxins, cytokinins).
Micro-propagation is the method of producing thousands of plants through tissue culture in short durations.
Each plant is genetically identical to the original plant (somaclones).
Many food plants like tomato, banana, and apple have been produced on a commercial scale using this method.
Another application is recovering healthy plants from diseased plants.
The meristem (apical and axillary) is free of viruses, allowing virus-free plants to be obtained by culturing the meristem in vitro.
Scientists have cultured meristems of banana, sugarcane, and potato.
Isolated protoplasts (surrounded by plasma membranes) from two different plant varieties can be fused to get hybrid protoplasts.
These hybrids are called somatic hybrids, and the process is called somatic hybridization.
Pomato (fusion of tomato and potato protoplasts) has been achieved but lacks desired commercial characteristics.
Strategies for Kicking Food Production into High Gear
Animal Husbandry: More Than Just Mooing and Clucking
Think of it as farming 2.0: breeding and raising livestock with a side of science.
Includes everything from buffaloes to bees, all for that sweet milk, eggs, meat, honey, and more.
Fun Fact: India and China house over 70% of the world's livestock but only produce 25% of the farm goods. Time to step up our game!
Farm Management: Where TLC Meets Tech
Dairy Farm: Got Milk (and Management)?
Dairying isn't just about cows; it's about systems that boost milk yield and quality.
Breed selection is key! High-yield + disease resistance = win.
Hygiene is non-negotiable. Cleanliness prevents the yuck factor during milking, storage, and transport.
Poultry Farm: No Bird Brains Allowed
Chickens and ducks are just the beginning. Turkey and geese are also part of the poultry party.
Farm conditions matter! Proper feed, water, and a clean space keep our feathered friends happy and healthy.
Random Fact: Keep an eye out for bird flu. It's the unwanted guest at the poultry party.
Animal Breeding: Playing Matchmaker with Animals
Inbreeding: Keeping it in the Family?
Mating close relatives for 4-6 generations. It's all about creating a pure line.
Exposes the baddies (harmful recessive genes) and gives the good guys (superior genes) a chance to shine.
But beware: too much of a good thing can lead to inbreeding depression. Time to mix it up!
Out-breeding: Mixing It Up
When inbreeding gets dull, out-breeding comes to the rescue with animals from different backgrounds.
Out-crossing: Same breed, different family tree. Perfect for those below-average performers.
Cross-breeding: The ultimate combo move. Superior males + superior females from different breeds = hybrid awesomeness.
Hybrid Vigor Alert: Hisardale sheep, anyone? A Punjab special made by crossing Bikaneri ewes with Marino rams.
Interspecific hybridization: When species get freaky. Mules happen.
Controlled Breeding: The Techy Way
Artificial insemination: Think sperm bank for animals.
MOET (Multiple Ovulation Embryo Transfer Technology): Super ovulation for the win! More eggs = more chances for hybrid success.
Bee-keeping (Apiculture): Buzzing with Benefits
Honeybees aren't just for honey; they're also cosmetic and polish makers.
Bees need pastures too! Wild shrubs, fruit orchards, and cultivated crops are their happy places.
Pro Tip: Bees are amazing pollinators. Keep them in your crop fields for better yields.
Fisheries: Dive into the Blue Revolution
More than just finding Nemo. It's about catching, processing, and selling fish and shellfish.
Fun Fact: Fisheries provide income and employment to millions, especially in coastal states.
Plant Breeding: Hacking Plant DNA for Fun and Profit
What is Plant Breeding?
It's like playing God with plants: tweaking them to yield more, resist diseases, and tolerate stress.
Green Revolution shout-out! Plant breeding saved the day in India, boosting food production like crazy.
Plant Breeding Programme Steps: The Master Plan
Collection of variability
Germplasm collection: It's like a plant library with diverse alleles for every gene.
Wheat and Rice: The OG Super Crops
Semi-dwarf varieties: Thank you, Norman E. Borlaug, for saving the world with wheat.
Sugar cane: Sweet Success
North meets South in this sugarcane love story. High yield, thick stems, and happy growth in northern India.
Millets: Stress-Resistant Champs
Hybrid maize, jowar, and bajra: the superheroes of water-stressed crops.
Plant Breeding for Disease Resistance: Battling the Bad Bugs
Fungi, bacteria, and viruses can cause major crop losses. Time to fight back with disease-resistant cultivars!
Resistance is genetic. Know your enemy (the causative organism) and how they transmit.
Mutation breeding: When chemicals and radiation create new traits. Mung bean says, "Bring on the yellow mosaic virus!"
Plant Breeding for Developing Resistance to Insect Pests: Bug Off!
Hairy leaves, solid stems, and nectar-less cotton: the secret weapons against pests.
Plant Breeding for Improved Food Quality: Leveling Up Nutrition
Biofortification: Because everyone deserves vitamins, minerals, and protein-packed meals. Maize with double lysine and tryptophan? Yes, please!