Colonial America: Religion, Slavery, and Conflict

Religious and Colonial Matters

The First Great Awakening

A return to religious practice occurred around 1740, known as the First Great Awakening.
The First Great Awakening contrasts from later revivals around 1800, which touched off reform movements.
Increased religious feeling was not tied to specific events like floods, hurricanes, or invasions.
The Awakening was characterized by "fire and brimstone" preaching.
Figures like Jonathan Edwards delivered sermons such as "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God," emphasizing sin and the need for repentance.
Church attendance increased as a result of the Awakening.
Evangelists like Billy Graham traveled widely, filling stadiums.
The Methodist movement, headed by John Wesley, also contributed and started colleges.
Religious fervor experienced ebbs and flows.

The Middle Passage

From 1525 to 1866, approximately 12.5 million Africans were forcibly transported across the Atlantic; 2 million did not survive the journey.
By the 18th century, European merchants built ships to carry hundreds of enslaved people.
Ships were equipped with ventilation, weapons, and additional compartments to maximize human cargo.
Enslaved people were stripped, shaved, and held on deck in temporary structures before being moved below.
Nets were installed to prevent captives from jumping overboard.
Below deck, enslaved people were crammed into compartments with low ceilings, segregated by gender and age.
Men were shackled, while women were often unchained, and children had more freedom of movement.
Conditions were unsanitary, leading to rampant disease.
Dysentery, malaria, yellow fever, smallpox, measles, and influenza were common.
Enslaved people spent about eight hours a day above deck but remained segregated. Forced exercise, including dance and song, was common.
Disobedient captives were tortured, whipped with instruments like the cat-o'-nine-tails, and force-fed using a speculum oris, a medieval tool.
Women were frequently raped and sexually abused.
Women sometimes coordinated mutinies, though these were rarely successful.
In 1783, the Zong massacre came to light during a court trial, revealing the horrors of the Middle Passage.
Captain Luke Collingwood ordered approximately 130 enslaved people thrown overboard to halt the spread of disease, as deaths due to disease were not covered by insurance, while deaths by drowning were.
The court sided with the ship's owners, agreeing that enslaved people could be treated like sick animals.
The Zong trial was publicized by British abolitionists to expose the brutalities of the slave trade.
The international slave trade was outlawed in Great Britain and the United States in 1807, but the institution of slavery persisted.
England abolished slavery 26 years later, while the US took 58 years and a civil war to do the same.

Depictions of Slavery

Most African people who were enslaved were brought to Brazil and the Caribbean.
A significant number also came to what became the Southern United States.
The TV series "Roots" (original in 1977) tells the story of Kunta Kinte, an enslaved man from West Africa.
The series follows his descendants and was written by Alex Haley, who also wrote the autobiography of Malcolm X.
Many enslaved people died from disease or were deliberately thrown overboard.
Some committed suicide, while others mistakenly believed they could swim back to Africa.

Slave Revolts

Slave revolts were unsuccessful due to the enslaved people's lack of knowledge about their location and the difficulty of maintaining secrecy.
Some enslaved people were welcomed by Native American tribes and integrated into the tribes.
The Stono Revolt occurred in 1739 in South Carolina, led by an literate slave named Jimmy.
The Negro Act of 1740 was enacted in response, restricting the rights of black people.
The act prohibited black people from congregating, possessing weapons, and learning to read and write.
Despite the restrictions, figures like Frederick Douglass and Nat Turner learned to read and write.

Colonial Cities

Not all colonial people lived on the frontier; some lived in cities.
In 1775, Philadelphia was the largest city with trade, commerce, theaters, bookstores, and an orchestra.
New York had 25,000 people and was known for trade.
Boston, the starting point of the revolution, had 16,000 people.
Charleston, South Carolina (SC), had 12,000 people.
Newport, Rhode Island (RI), was another significant city.

Literacy and News

Americans were avid readers, consuming text messages, emails, and other forms of written communication.
Colonists were interested in current events.
Dame schools provided education to young girls and boys, particularly in New England and Massachusetts.
Literacy rates were higher in Massachusetts due to the Puritan belief that everyone should be able to read the Bible.
The first newspapers in the colonies had limited current news and were shared among communities.
Public Occurrences, published in 1690 in Boston, was one of the first newspapers.

Colonial Colleges

Colonial colleges trained ministers, particularly Protestant ministers.
Harvard (1636) was the first college, followed by William and Mary, Yale, Princeton, Columbia, and the University of Pennsylvania.
These colleges offered a wider curriculum beyond theology, including philosophy, history, literature, and foreign languages.
Students studied theology, philosophy, history, literature, and ancient languages (Hebrew and Greek).
Modern languages (French) and mathematics and science were also taught.
The purpose was to provide a comprehensive education in the colonies.

Colonial Rivalries: Britain vs. France

Britain and France were superpowers with a long history of conflict.
Wars between them spilled over into the colonies.
Native American tribes often sided with one country against the other.
The French and Indian War was part of a larger global conflict called the Seven Years' War.

The French and Indian War

The French controlled territory in green (Canada).
The English controlled the area in lighter color (The 13 colonies).
Fort Duquesne, located in disputed territory (modern-day Pittsburgh), was a point of contention.
The governor of Virginia sent the Virginia militia, led by George Washington, to investigate the region.
Washington built Fort Necessity near Fort Duquesne.
Washington's actions, including killing French ambassadors, sparked the French and Indian War. Killing ambassadors is a violation of diplomatic immunity standards of the 18th century, and considered a grave offense.

Global Impact of Seven Years' War

The Seven Years' War had global reach, with fighting in India, Europe, and West Africa.
The conflict involved numerous countries, including Russia, Prussia, and Sweden.

Colonial Unity

The colonies had never acted in unison before the proposal of the Albany Plan of Union by Benjamin Franklin. This was intended to ally all of the colonies.
The Albany Plan of Union, inspired by the Iroquois Confederacy, aimed to unite the colonies.
The Iroquois Confederacy included the Cayuga, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Seneca, and Tuscarora tribes.
The plan was of greater interest to colonies near French The French-speaking settlements.
The primary goals did not involve the idea of breaking away from England at all.
American colonists cooperated with the British against the French and their native allies.

British Victory and Territorial Changes

Britain's superior navy played a crucial role in defeating the French.
The British captured Louisburg, Quebec, and Montreal.
The victory resulted in significant territorial gains for Britain in North America.
All of the area that used to belong to France in North America was transferred to Britain.

Post-War Tensions

The war cost Britain a great deal of money.
The British sought to prevent colonists from moving into newly acquired territories.
Colonists desired to expand westward into the Ohio River Valley and future states like Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee.
Britain lacked the resources to protect colonists in these areas.
Native American leaders, including Chief Pontiac (namesake of the city) and the Shawnee opposed American settlement.
The British sent blankets infected with smallpox to the Shawnees, engaging in biological warfare.
The Proclamation Line sought to prevent American colonists from crossing the Appalachian Mountains.
Colonists continued to cross the line, creating difficulties for British protection efforts.