PSYC 1 Final Exam Study Guide

PSYC 1 FINAL EXAM — EXTREMELY DETAILED OUTLINE (Lectures 10–13 + IVC Final Study Guide)

1) SENSATION & PERCEPTION (Lecture 10)

A. Perception

  • Definition:

    • Perception is defined as sensation plus interpretation.

    • Sensation provides the brain with raw input, while perception involves making meaning out of that input.

  • Why This Matters:

    • Two individuals can have the same sensation but can perceive it differently based on factors like experience, expectations, and attention.

B. Patternicity and Agenticity

  • 1. Patternicity:

    • This refers to the brain’s innate tendency to find meaningful patterns in chaotic stimuli (e.g., seeing faces in clouds or shapes in food).

  • 2. Agenticity:

    • This is the brain's inclination to believe that an intentional agent caused the observed patterns (e.g., a person or entity “made it happen”).

  • 3. Why Included:

    • Understanding these concepts explains how misperceptions occur when individuals see meanings that are not present, due to the mind's rapid pattern detection process.

C. Sensation: Detection, Discrimination, Scaling

  • 1. Detection:

    • Question: “Can I detect it at all?”

    • This leads to the concept of the absolute threshold.

  • 2. Discrimination:

    • Question: “Can I detect a difference/change?”

    • This leads to the difference threshold (just noticeable difference, JND) and incorporates Weber–Fechner laws.

  • 3. Scaling:

    • Question: “How strong does it feel?”

  • Psychophysics:

    • Psychophysics defines the study of the relationship between physical characteristics of stimuli and the psychological experiences associated with them.

D. Absolute Thresholds

  • 1. Definition:

    • The absolute threshold is described as the minimum amount of stimulation that a person can detect 50% of the time through a specific sensory modality.

  • 2. Examples:

    • Vision: Candle flame at 30 miles on a clear, dark night.

    • Hearing: Ticking watch at 20 feet in a quiet room.

    • Smell: 1 drop of perfume in a 3-bedroom apartment.

    • Taste: 1 teaspoon of sugar in 2 gallons of water.

    • Touch: Wing of a fly falling on your cheek from 1 cm.

E. Subliminal Stimulation

  • 1. Definition:

    • Subliminal stimulation refers to stimuli that are detected less than 50% of the time, classified as below the absolute threshold (“subliminal”).

  • 2. Perception Insight:

    • Individuals can perceive subliminal stimuli at a weak level but are generally not influenced or controlled by subliminal “messages.”

    • Subliminal stimuli can create associations (priming-type effects).

F. Difference Threshold / Just Noticeable Difference (JND)

  • 1. Definition:

    • The difference threshold or JND is defined as the smallest change in stimulation that a person can detect through a particular sense.

  • Real-Life Application:

    • This involves questioning when a change becomes noticeable in contexts like volume change, brightness, or weight change.

G. Weber–Fechner Law

  • 1. Definition:

    • The law states that the intensity needed to notice a difference in stimulus is proportional to the intensity of the original stimulus.

  • 2. Remembering Tip:

    • A larger change is required to notice differences in stimuli that are already strong or intense (loud/bright).

H. Sensory Adaptation

  • 1. Definition:

    • Sensory adaptation is defined as diminished sensitivity resulting from constant stimulation.

  • 2. Example from Lecture:

    • Initial exposure to cold water feels intense but diminishes as one remains in the water.

  • 3. Vision Detail:

    • The phenomenon of staring does not lead to loss of vision since the eyes make small continuous movements.

I. The Eye (Structures & Functions)

  • What We See:

    • Humans perceive light within the visible spectrum of approximately 400–700 nm.

    • Wave Characteristics:

      • Wavelength corresponds to color, and amplitude corresponds to brightness.

  • 1. Cornea:

    • Serves to protect the eye's surface.

  • 2. Lens:

    • Responsible for focusing light; performs accommodation as follows:

      • Distant image: lens flattens.

      • Close image: lens thickens.

  • 3. Iris + Pupil:

    • The iris regulates light entry; the pupil functions as an aperture.

  • 4. Retina:

    • Converts electromagnetic radiation into neural impulses; images projected on retinal surface are upside-down and backward.

  • 5. Fovea and Periphery:

    • Fovea: Center of retina with highest receptor density.

    • Periphery: Contains fewer receptors leading to less clarity but is essential for motion detection.

J. Receptors: Rods and Cones

  • 1. Cones:

    • Responsible for color vision and are concentrated in the fovea.

  • 2. Rods:

    • Function as light receptors without color, lacking in the fovea, and concentrated in the periphery.

K. Blind Spot

  • Description:

    • The blind spot in the visual field occurs where the optic nerve exits the eye, containing no receptors for visual detection.

L. Theories of Color Vision

  • 1. Young–Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory:

    • Although there are many visible colors, humans possess three types of receptors for Red, Green, and Blue.

    • This combination allows the recognition of approximately 10,000,000 colors.

  • 2. Hering Opponent-Process Theory:

    • Accounts for the inability to perceive colors like “reddish-green” or “yellowish-blue.”

    • Opponent color pairs include:

      • Red vs. Green

      • Blue vs. Yellow

      • Black vs. White

  • 3. Afterimages:

    • These occur due to the fatigue of one half of an opponent color pair, leading to the display of the complementary color upon gaze shift.

M. Gestalt Psychology

  • 1. Main Idea:

    • Suggests that sensations are primarily organized into meaningful wholes; emphasizing that the whole may exceed the sum of its parts.

  • 2. Figure–Ground:

    • Figure: Foreground/object of interest.

    • Ground: Background.

    • An object cannot simultaneously be perceived as both figure and ground.

  • 3. Gestalt Grouping Principles:

    • Proximity: Group nearby items together.

    • Similarity: Group similar items.

    • Continuity: Preference for smooth, continuous patterns.

    • Connectedness: Perception of connected items as a single unit.

    • Closure: Tendency to fill in gaps to complete objects.

N. Depth Perception

  • 1. Definition:

    • The ability to perceive objects in three dimensions and judge distance accurately.

  • 2. Binocular Depth Cues (both eyes):

    • Convergence: The inward eye movement for closer objects signals proximity.

    • Retinal Disparity: The slight difference in images received by each eye; greater disparity indicates closeness.

  • 3. Monocular Depth Cues (one eye):

    • Relative Size: Smaller objects appear further away.

    • Interposition: The object in front occludes the one behind, suggesting closeness.

    • Relative Height: Objects closer to the horizon appear farther away.

    • Linear Perspective: Parallel lines seem to converge in the distance, inferring depth.

    • Aerial Perspective: Clearer objects appear closer; hazier ones appear farther away.

    • Motion Parallax: Larger/faster moving objects appear closer, while smaller/slower ones appear further away.

    • Light and Shadow: Objects that cast shadows appear to be further away; this leads to assumptions about light sources being from above.

O. Perceptual Constancy (Size & Shape)

  • 1. Definition:

    • The ability to maintain consistent perception of an object’s physical characteristics (size, shape, color) despite changes in sensory input.

  • 2. Size Constancy:

    • Perception of size remains stable even if retinal images diminish as distance increases.

    • Influenced by perceived distance and the size of retinal images.

  • 3. Shape Constancy:

    • The perception of shape remains consistent even despite changes in its orientation.

2) CONSCIOUSNESS (Lecture 11)

A. Consciousness Defined

  • Definition:

    • Consciousness refers to the awareness of ourselves and our environments.

B. Attention Topics

  • 1. Selective Attention:

    • The process of focusing conscious awareness on a specific stimulus.

  • 2. Inattentional Blindness:

    • The phenomenon of failing to notice something obvious because one’s attention is directed elsewhere, often discussed alongside selective attention.

  • 3. Change Blindness:

    • The failure to notice changes in one's environment, as illustrated by demonstrations showing inattentiveness.

C. Circadian Rhythms

  • Definition:

    • Circadian rhythm is described as the biological clock, encompassing regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle (such as wakefulness and body temperature).

D. Sleep

  • 1. Definition:

    • Sleep is defined as a periodic, natural, reversible loss of consciousness.

  • 2. Effects of Sleep Deprivation:

    • Major consequences include fatigue, a suppressed immune system, increased accident rates, diminished concentration and memory, irritability, impaired moral judgments, obesity risk, and heart disease risk.

  • Additional Insight:

    • Night shift work combines circadian misalignment with sleep deprivation.

E. Sleep Disorders

  • 1. Insomnia:

    • Characterized by persistent difficulties falling or remaining asleep.

  • 2. Narcolepsy:

    • Defined by uncontrolled sleep attacks.

  • 3. Sleep Apnea:

    • Involves temporary pauses in breathing along with momentary awakenings.

  • 4. Night Terrors:

    • Occur within 2–3 hours of falling asleep, typically during Stage 4; they feature high arousal and are seldom remembered.

  • 5. Sleep Paralysis:

    • Occurs upon waking when the body remains in a state of brain-induced paralysis.

F. Sleep Stages, REM Sleep, REM Rebound

  • 1. REM Sleep (Rapid Eye Movement):

    • Recognized as a recurring sleep stage characterized by vivid dreams and is referred to as paradoxical sleep because, while muscles are relaxed, other body systems show heightened activity.

  • 2. Details from Lecture Regarding REM Sleep:

    • Lasts about 10 minutes, features rapid “saw-toothed” brain waves, increased heart rate and breathing, muscle relaxation, and rapid eye movements.

  • 3. REM Rebound:

    • The process where REM sleep increases after periods of REM deprivation.

G. Dreams

  • Definition (Features):

    • Dreams are sequences of images, emotions, and thoughts, characterized by hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities/incongruities, delusional acceptance of content, and difficulties in recollection.

  • 1. Freudian Interpretation:

    • Proposes that dreams are a form of wish fulfillment that discharge unacceptable feelings.

      • Manifest Content: The remembered storyline of the dream.

      • Latent Content: The underlying meaning of the dream.

  • 2. Activation-Synthesis Theory:

    • Proposed by Hobson in 1977, this theory suggests that dreaming correlates with brain activity; the brain synthesizes meaning from random signals.

  • 3. Memory Facilitation:

    • Dreaming is believed to aid in encoding new experiences and facilitating memory, as suggested by researchers Hobson, Stickgold, and Smith.

  • 4. Major Dream Theory Categories:

    • Unconscious motivations, physiological periodic brain stimulation, and information processing/memory facilitation.

H. Hypnosis + Effects

  • 1. Definition:

    • Hypnosis is defined as a social interaction where a hypnotist suggests that perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will occur.

  • 2. Posthypnotic Amnesia:

    • This term refers to the suggested inability to recall events that occurred during hypnosis.

  • 3. Orne & Evans (1965) Experiment:

    • In this experiment, a hypnotized group was instructed to dip their hands in a fake acid and throw it at an assistant, while un-hypnotized subjects performed the same actions. The third control group was asked to pretend.

    • Takeaway: The behavior can be influenced by social context and role-playing rather than “mind control.”

I. Drugs and Consciousness (Psychoactive Substances)

  • 1. Psychoactive Drug:

    • It is defined as a chemical substance that alters perceptions and mood.

  • 2. Dependence:

    • Physical Dependence: Involves physiological need along with unpleasant withdrawal symptoms.

    • Psychological Dependence: Pertains to the psychological need to relieve negative emotions.

  • 3. Tolerance and Withdrawal:

    • Tolerance: Describes the diminishing effects experienced with regular drug use.

    • Withdrawal: Refers to the discomfort or distress resulting from cessation of drug use.

  • 4. Depressants:

    • These drugs reduce neural activity and slow bodily functions (examples include alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates).

      • Alcohol: Affects motor functions, judgment, and memory; it decreases self-awareness.

      • Barbiturates: Depress the central nervous system, reduce anxiety, and can impair memory/judgment.

      • Opiates: Includes derivatives of opium (e.g., morphine and heroin); depress neural activity, reduce pain and anxiety, and are highly addictive.

  • 5. Stimulants:

    • Excite neural activity and speed up body functions (notable examples are caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy).

      • Amphetamines: Known as “speed,” these stimulate neural activity, causing changes in energy and mood.

      • Cocaine: Its effects vary based on dosage, form, expectations, personality, and situation.

      • Ecstasy (MDMA): Functions as a stimulant and mild hallucinogen; can significantly impact serotonin production, posing short- and long-term risks.

  • 6. Hallucinogens:

    • These distort perceptions and evoke sensory images without external sensory input (examples include LSD and MDMA).

      • LSD (“acid”): Recognized as a powerful hallucinogen.

      • THC: The main active component in marijuana, capable of triggering mild hallucinations.

3) LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT (Lecture 12)

A. Developmental Psychology

  • Definition:

    • Developmental psychology is the branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social changes throughout the lifespan.

B. Nurture via Nature

  • Concept:

    • Heredity (nature) and environment (nurture) interact over time to shape individual development.

C. Stage Development vs Continuous Development

  • 1. Stages:

    • Involves orderly sequences determined by maturation; these stages are organized around a prominent theme, differ qualitatively, follow a sequential order, and can be influenced by environmental factors (can be sped up or slowed down).

  • 2. Continuous Development:

    • Denotes smooth and continuous changes where biology plays a significant role.

D. Prenatal Development

  • Stages of Development:

    • 1. Zygote:

      • Refers to a fertilized egg, where rapid cell division occurs from conception until the 2nd week, after which it becomes an embryo.

    • 2. Embryo:

      • Spans from the 2nd week through the 2nd month; begins to develop brain structure by the 8th week.

    • 3. Fetus:

      • From 9 weeks to birth, during which foundational aspects such as brain stability (week 18), the onset of hearing (week 21), and vision development (week 26) occur.

    • 4. Teratogens:

      • Chemicals or viruses that can reach the embryo or fetus and cause harmful effects.

    • 5. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS):

      • Describes physical and cognitive abnormalities resulting from extensive alcohol consumption during pregnancy; symptoms may include facial misproportions.

E. Capacities of Newborns

  • 1. Innate Abilities:

    • Newborns are born with capacities for perception and learning as well as a tendency for social connection.

  • 2. Preferences:

    • Infants show preferences for human voices and faces, with a notable inclination towards the smell and sound of their mother.

  • 3. Rooting Reflex:

    • When an infant's cheek is touched, they instinctively open their mouth and search for the nipple.

  • 4. Smiling:

    • Infants produce social smiles in response to pleasant stimuli.

F. Physical Development: Maturation

  • Definition:

    • Maturation is defined as biological growth processes that enable orderly changes relatively unaffected by experience.

G. Cognitive Development (Piaget's Terms from Study Guide)

  • 1. Cognition:

    • Encompasses the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

  • 2. Schema:

    • A schema is a concept or framework that helps to organize and interpret information.

  • 3. Sensorimotor Stage:

    • Key details include Object Permanence (the awareness that objects continue to exist even when they are not perceived) and Stranger Anxiety (the general fear of strangers that emerges around 8 months).

  • 4. Preoperational Stage:

    • Marked by Egocentrism (the inability to take another person’s perspective) and the development of a Theory of Mind (the understanding of one’s own and others' mental states and their correlation with predictive behavior).

  • 5. Concrete Operational Stage:

    • Highlights the principle of Conservation (the understanding that properties like mass, volume, and number remain constant despite changes in form).

  • 6. Formal Operational Stage:

    • Identification of this stage is required; details beyond its name are not provided in the source material.

H. Social Development

  • 1. Attachment:

    • Attachment refers to the emotional bond between a child and their caregiver, prompting closeness-seeking behaviors and distress when separated.

  • 2. Harlow’s Surrogate Mother Experiments:

    • Revealed that monkeys favored contact with a comfortable cloth mother over a wire mother that provided food, underscoring the importance of comfort and security.

  • 3. Basic Trust (Erikson):

    • Identified as a perception of the world as predictable and trustworthy, cultivated in infancy through responsive caregiving.

  • 4. Identity:

    • Involves the sense of self; a primary task of adolescence is to test and integrate various roles, summoning the question, “Who am I? Where am I going?”

  • 5. Erikson’s Stages:

    • Considered required terms; specificity concerning pairings is noted on the study guide.

4) ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY & THERAPY (Lecture 13)

A. Psychological Disorder

  • Definition:

    • A psychological disorder is characterized as a harmful dysfunction where behaviors are assessed as:

      • 1. Atypical: Exhibiting behavior that deviates from the norm (though atypical alone is not sufficient for classification).

      • 2. Disturbing: This may vary across time and cultures.

      • 3. Unjustifiable: Behavior may lack a reasonable explanation.

      • 4. Maladaptive: Behaviors that are harmful to the individual.

B. Approaches to Understanding Psychological Disorders

  • 1. Psychoanalytic:

    • Explores the influence of unconscious drives and conflicts.

  • 2. Humanistic:

    • Emphasizes individuals' perspective and self-actualization.

  • 3. Behaviorist:

    • Focuses on observable behaviors and their modifications through conditioning.

  • 4. Cognitive:

    • Concentrates on thought processes and cognitive distortions.

  • 5. Medical Model:

    • Views psychological disorders as diseases with physical causes that can be diagnosed and treated; suggests that mental illnesses diagnosed via symptoms can be effectively cured through therapy or even hospitalization.

  • 6. Bio-Psycho-Social Approach (Interactionist):

    • Proposes that biological, sociocultural, and psychological factors interconnect and coexist, suggesting that the mind and body are inseparable.

C. DSM-5

  • Definition:

    • Stands for Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th edition); it is the classification system used for diagnosing psychological disorders.

D. Labeling Individuals with Disorders (Possible Dangers)

  • Concern:

    • Echoes the ideas presented by Rosenhan, indicating that once individuals are labeled, they may interpret all their experiences through the lens of that label.

E. Psychological Disorders (What to Know for Each)

  • 1. Anxiety Disorders:

    • Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD):

      • Characterized by excessive and uncontrollable worry about various life aspects, described as “free-floating”; concerns are not tied to specific threats.

    • Panic Disorder:

      • Involves frequent and unexpected panic attacks that lead to escalated anxiety.

    • Phobias:

      • Defined as persistently unreasonable fears associated with specific objects, activities, or situations.

    • Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD):

      • Characterized by:

        • Obsessions: Intrusive and persistent thoughts/ideas/images.

        • Compulsions: Repetitive behaviors or mental acts performed to reduce anxiety.

  • 2. Mood Disorders:

    • Marked by emotional extremes along a continuum:

      • Depression: Described as low, sad, dark, or overwhelming emotional states.

      • Mania: Experienced as breathless euphoria coupled with frenzied energy.

      • Major Depressive Disorder:

        • Defined by a 2-week period of depressed mood, feelings of worthlessness, and diminished interest or pleasure in activities.

      • Bipolar Disorder:

        • Characterized by alternating mood states of depression and mania.

      • Depression Symptom Checklist (High-yield):

        • Includes persistent depressed mood, diminished interest or pleasure, changes in weight/appetite, sleep disturbances, psychomotor agitation or retardation, fatigue, feelings of worthlessness, difficulties in concentration, and recurrent thoughts of death or suicidal ideation.

  • 3. Schizophrenia:

    • Commonly known as “split mind”; it encompasses severe disorders marked by:

      • Delusional Thinking: Disorganized beliefs, both persecutory and grandiose.

      • Disturbed Perceptions: Hallucinations, which represent sensory experiences without actual stimuli.

      • Emotion/Affective Disturbance: Including inappropriate emotional responses.

  • 4. Biomedical Therapy: Highlighted in the lecture slides includes Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT):

    • Utilized for individuals with severe depression; involves delivering a brief electric current to the brain while the patient is under anesthetic.

End of Notes