AP Human Geo Exam Review

2025 One Pager Review Packet

Unit 1: Thinking Geographically
Unit 2: Population Migration Patterns and Processes
Unit 3: Cultural Patterns and Processes
Unit 4: Political Patterns and Processes
Unit 5: Agricultural and rural land-use patterns and processes
Unit 6: Cities and Urban land-use patterns and processes
Unit 7: Industrial and Economic development patterns and processes
Created by Mrs. Trapani’s APHG students

Unit 1: Map and Spatial Patterns

Map projections
Geospatial technologies
Observations of Spatial information
The Power of Data
Spatial concepts
Nature and Society
Human Environment Interaction
Scale of Analysis
Regional Analysis

Unit 2: Population Distribution

Population Density
Consequences of Population Distribution
Population pyramids
Population Dynamics
Demographic transition model
Epidemiological transition model
Malthusian theory
Population Policies
Women and demographic change
Aging populations
Causes of migration
Forced and voluntary migrations
Ravenstein laws of migration
Effects of migration

Unit 3: Introduction to Culture

Cultural landscape - language
Cultural landscape - religion
Patterns related to language
Patterns related to religion
Types of diffusion
Historical causes and effects of diffusion
Contemporary causes and effects of diffusion
Diffusion of religion
Diffusion of language
Effects of diffusion

Unit 4: Intro to Political Geography

Influencers of Political Boundaries
Political power and territoriality
Types of political boundaries
The function of Political Boundaries - land
The function of political boundaries - sea
Internal Boundaries
Forms of governance
Defining Devolutionary forces
Examples of Devolution and Disintegration
Supranationalism
Consequences of Centrifugal and Centripetal forces

Unit 5: Climate and agriculture

Types of intensive agriculture
Types of extensive agriculture
Settlement patterns and survey methods
The 1st agricultural revolution
Columbian exchange
2nd agricultural revolution
The green revolution
Agricultural production regions
Trends in the spatial organization of agriculture
Von Thunen model
The global system of agriculture
Consequences of agricultural practices
Challenges of contemporary agriculture
Sustainable agriculture solutions
Women in agriculture

Unit 6: The first Urban revolution

Influences of urbanization
Cities across the world
Cities in north america
Cities and globalization
The size and distribution of cities
Internal structure of cities in north america
Structure of cities outside north america
Density and Land Use
Infrastructure
Urban sustainability
Urban design initiatives - impacts
Urban data
Challenges of urban changes
Urban renewal and gentrification
Challenges to urban sustainability
Responses to urban sustainability challenges

Unit 7: The Industrial Revolution

Economic sectors
The location of manufacturing
Measures of Development
Women and economic development
Theories of development
Trade and the world economy
Independent global economies
Changes as a result of deindustrialization
Environmental impacts of Industry and development
Sustainable development
Sustainable development goals

Unit 1 Thinking Geographically

Relative Location: Explaining the location of something in relation to other things, not its fixed location. Example: The store is five minutes from Starbucks.
Absolute Location: The exact location of something, usually using coordinates. Example: The North pole is located at 90 degrees North latitude and 0 degrees East longitude.
Distance: How far two points are
Direction: How to get from one point to another
Dispersed/scattered: The spatial pattern in which points are spread out over a large space
Uniform Landscape: A place where many locations share a feature or characteristic
Elevation: The height of a location or place above sea level
Clustering/clumped: The spatial pattern in which points are very close together
Agglomeration: The closeness or clustering of businesses or people in one area to keep a concentrated zone
Linear: The spatial pattern in which buildings are in a straight line
Spatial patterns: The way you see the settlements. Settlements can be linear, clustered, and dispersed

Geospatial Technology

Geospatial technology is used to collect data and record information that is used to study.
Managing resources
Supporting decision-making
Enhancing various aspects of life and business
Environmental management
Urban planning
Mapping city sprawls and in designing informed decisions.
Geospatial technology is the use of several different maps and laying them atop one another to create a singular map with a significant amount of data
Remote Sensing: Scanning of Earth done by a system of satellites. Ex: scanning the Earth and taking pictures.
Satellite navigational systems: Network of satellites that provide geo-positioning. Ex: satellites used for remote sensing tracking of a person/object and/or locating where you are.

Map Projections

Map Projection: The method of taking the globe and putting it on a flat surface.
Mercator
- Flaws: Distorts sizes and shapes of land at high latitude
- Pros: Preserves directions
Robinson
- Flaws: Distorts shapes, area, and directions
- Pros: Minimizes distortions
Peters
- Flaws: Significantly distorted shapes near poles
- Pros: Accurate size
Polar
Regions near the poles
Equal Area
- A map projection the preserves all area and shape and direction
Map projections are the result of taking our globe and putting it onto a flat surface.
There are many types of projections and all of them distort certain things.
All maps are wrong in some way shape or form.

Observation of spatial Technology

Spatial technology encompasses a wide range of applications, primarily involving the capture, processing analysis, visualization of location-based data, assists with mapping of the earth through the study of position, area and size of locations.
Spatial technology is the use of satellites and scanning of Earth from space. This helps scientists and geologists study the Earth.
Field observations: Physically visiting a location to gather firsthand data, like writing accounts, taking photos, or interviewing residents
Media Reports: Source of geographic data when field observations are not practical or possible
Travel narratives: Valuable resources that provide insights into the experiences and perspectives of individuals in different places
Policy documents: Formal written statements from governments or organizations outlining regulations, laws, or guidelines related to various geographic issues
Personal interviews: Valuable data collection method, particularly for GIS gathering qualitative data.
Landscape analysis: Process of studying and describing a landscape, generally with the goal of assessing the impact of humans on that space
Photographic interpretation: A skill where students analyze images to understand spatial patterns, human-environment interactions, and geographic processes

The Power of Data

Geospatial data: Information about where a certain place is located on the earth. Coordinates, longitude and latitude, and other features are used to place locations on a map.
Geospatial data is used to understand location based information and provides insights to spatial patterns and trends.
Vector Data in GIS: Presented using lines, points, and polygons. These markers are used to represent buildings, boundaries, rivers, and roads.
Raster Data in GIS: Similar to Vector data, but is shown in a pixelated grid pattern. Raster data uses color to differentiate points and lines on the GIS.
GIS (geographic information system): A framework map and graph for gathering, managing and analyzing data. It uses computers to store and understand the formations and patterns.

Spatial Concepts

Spatial concepts help us understand where we are in the world.
Spatial concepts are not only essential for following directions on your GPS, but are also used in simple speech and explanations.
Absolute Location if the exact fixed place of someone or something on the earth. To put it simply, think of your home address. That is the absolute location of your house. Or, Life360 provides the absolute location of your phone.
Relative location describes a place’s location compared to another place or landmark, using directions, distance, or time. To lead someone to your house using Relative location you could say “I live down the street from McDonalds”

Nature and Society - Human Environment Interaction

Sustainability: The concept of development that meets the needs of the present
Natural resources: Material found in the natural environment that humans value and use for various purposes. Ex: soil, plants , animals
Renewable resources: Resource that can be replaced by natural processes within a period relevant to human activity. Ex: sunlight, wind , water
Non-renewable resources: A resource that cannot be replaced at a rate that keeps up with its consumption. Ex; fossil fuels (coal,oil), minerals
Land use: The way humans utilize land for activities including agriculture, residential areas, commercial zones
Crop rotation: Practice of planting different crops in a specific sequence on the same land to maintain soil fertility and prevent disease

Human Environment Interaction

Determinism: Theory that suggests the physical environment significantly influences human societies and their development. Ex: Environmental Determinism: suggests the physical environment significantly influences human behavior, culture and societal development.
East- to - West orientation of the Eurasian continent
Possibilism: While the environment presents limitations, humans have the capacity to adapt, innovate, and overcome those limitations in order to shape their societies and cultures. Ex: Building Infrastructure
Humans can build houses, roads, and other infrastructures, even in challenging environments, by adapting to the environment and using available resources.

Scale of Analysis

Scale: The relationship between the size of a feature on a map and its actual size on Earth’s surface
Scale of Analysis: The geographical area or level of detail used when studying a particular phenomenon or issue
Large Scale: A map that shows a small portion of the earth’s surface but has more details in the data it is displaying(think zoom in)
Small Scale: A map that shows a large portion of the earth's surface but has less details in the data it is displaying(think zoom out and observing many countries like both North and South America)
Regional Scale: Focuses on the study within a specific geographic area, called a region
National Scale: Studying and understand a country or nation as a whole.(The US)
Global Scale: Examining data and patterns across the entire planet.
Local Scale: The examination of geographic phenomena within a relatively small area, such as a neighborhood, town, or city

Regional Analysis

Formal Region: Regions that are distinct with recognized political boundaries and agreed upon by everyone through either political or scientific means. (Ex: A Nation-State, US, or France)
Functional Region: A region that has a central node upon which everything in the region is reliant. It is designed based upon a functional, rather than political, purpose.(Ex: Cities, NY City)
Perceptual/ Vernacular Region: Regions that exist in people’s imagination rather than as clearly defines specific locations. These are informal or unofficial boundaries. (Ex:Southern California and The Bible Belt)

Ravenstein's Laws of Migration

Most migration is over a short distance.
Migration occurs in steps
Long-range migrants usually move to urban areas
Each migration produces a movement in the opposite direction
Rural dwellers are more migratory than urban dwellers
Within their own country females are more migratory than males, but males are more migratory over long distances
Most migrants are adults
Large towns grow more by migration than natural increase
Migration increases with economic development
Most migration moves from rural to urban
Migration is mostly due to economic causes.
Many of Ravenstein’s laws are still relevant today. Some of them have slightly changed due to world constantly changing. Their main ideas stay the same.

Effects of Immigration

Brain drain: Emigration of a better educated individual seeking better opportunities in more developed countries.
Transnationalism: Allows individuals or communities to maintain connection, identities, and activities across many countries.
Unauthorized immigrant: People who come to a country without proper legal documentation. Or who stay past their permitted time.
Remittances: Money that migrant workers send back to their home countries.

Population Policies

Population Policies are policies enforced by a nation's government encouraging or discouraging one to have kids.
- China’s anti-natalist one-child policy enforced a policy stating families were only allowed to have one child per family, this policy was implemented in 1979, up until 2016, where they changed it to a two-child policy.
- Denmark’s, a pro-natalist country, encourage child births. Often pronatalist countries offer support for having more children, they offer universal healthcare, generous parental leave, cash payments to families with children and many more compensations.

Malthusian Theory

The Malthusian Theory is the theory that one day the population will outpace the growth of food and resources.
The Malthusian Theory was popularized in the 18th century.
The creator Thomas Robert Malthus, suggests that eventually but inevitably, the growth of the human population will outpace the growth of food production, which would result in famine and poverty.
It presents that, the human population grows exponentially while the growth of the food production grows in a linear fashion.

Population Pyramids

Population pyramids are used to observe populations demographically.
Males are on the left side and females are on the right side. The more the population, the longer it will be.
Population pyramids can be also used in the demographic transition model
Stage one describes high birth rates with high death rates
Stage two has high birth rates with a fall in death rate
Stage three has declining birth rate and low death rate
Stage 4 has low birth rates with low deaths, and life expectancy increases.
Over time, countries who reach stage 5 will have negative population growth with a graying population.
Graying population: A demographic shift where older adults increase significantly while the younger population decreases, creating an older dependency ratio

Population Dynamics

$Crude Birth Rate:$
$\frac{Number \, of \, live \,births \, in \, a \, year}{Total \, population} \times 1000$
$Crude Death \, Rate:$
$\frac{Number \, of \,deaths \, in \, a \, year}{Total \, population} \times 1000$
$Rate \, of \, Natural \, Increase:$
$\frac{CBR - CDR}{1000}$
Immigration vs Emigration
- Immigration is the act of moving into a country
- Emigration is the act of moving out of the country
Migration is immigration minus the emigration in the country, calculating the net amount of people coming in or out of the country.
Total Fertility Rate: average number of children a woman is expected to have throughout her childbearing years

Causes of Migration, Forced and Voluntary Migrations, Independent Global Economics

Forced Migration: Moving due to aspects out of one’s control that threatens their life.
Voluntary Migration: Moving for a desirable reason; wants to move to a particular location
Causes of Migration:
- Economic: A job opening or better economy in a country, escaping poverty. Ex: Mexicans moving to the US for agricultural work
- Political: Conflict with government can lead to migration such as refugees and asylum seekers
- Environmental: Natural disasters that make a place unlivable make people move elsewhere. Ex: A flood, tornado, sandstorm
- Social Factors: Some move to be with close ones such as friends and family or live a different life style. Ex: Better education, visiting parents
Independent Global Economies: Studies the impact one country has on others economically based on resources, production, and demand. Ex. Textile production in Bangladesh and the demand for clothing in the United States. Can be remembered with core-periphery country model.

Population Distribution

Population distribution is how people are spread out throughout earth.
For example, some people are in a uniform area, clustered or random distribution. Which is one category that geographers are looking at, why certain areas are clumped together.
Factors that lead up to these types of distribution are due to physical, human and economic aspects.
Some physical aspects would be the climate since it choses where people live if they want to live somewhere warmer. As well as being a major factor for growing crops.
One human factor would be the creation of transportation. Rather a particular area had easy access to railroads, water ways, etc. If that area has a lot of movement and good settlement.
The cost of transportation and goods also have a major impact on where and how people live. It also determines where goods are produced and how they are transported.
Population density VS Population distribution
- Population density is the number of people packed into a given space.
- Population distribution is the arrangement of people on a given area.
- Density focuses on measurement while distribution focuses on influences.

Population Density

Population density is the number of people packed on a given space (per square unit). This is calculated by dividing the total population by the total area.
There are three types of density:
- Arithmetic
- Agricultural
- Physiological density.
- Arithmetic density is the total number of people in any given area that is compared to one unit square of land.
- Agricultural density focuses of farmers on a specific unit of farmland.
- Physiological density is measuring the total number of people and divide it by the total amount of farmland.

Consequences of Population Distribution

People are mostly distributed in Asia and the Northern Hemisphere.
Affects people socially depending on their location’s development.
Areas with higher densities like Singapore are open to more opportunities but overcrowding can negatively affect their quality of life
If your area has a high population then that would result in a large labor force and various jobs in the market.
The dependency ratio also plays a major role in economics because the higher the dependency rate, the rates for medical care starts to rise.
Population distribution can lead to overpopulation in some places. That typically affects the amount of pollution in that area and climate change due to factories, cars, etc. Meaning population distribution affect the environment.

Women & Demographic Change

The status for women within demographic change is how women and their fertility impact fertility rates and population growth.
The study of how fertility rates, female education, workforce participation, and even political access are impacted by demographic trends.

Aging Populations

Definitions:
- The increase proportion of older people in a population. Mostly driven by high life expectancy and declining fertility rates.
Prime example of declining fertility rates and an increased life expectancy.

UNIT 3: DIFFUSION OF RELIGION

Diffusion is the spread of ideas, objects, inventions, and other practices from one place to another.
Universalizing religions typically diffuse through contagious, relocation, and hierarchical diffusion.
Ethnic religions tend to spread by relocation diffusion, as their followers don't actively search for new followers.
How did the most popular religions diffuse?
- Hinduism: Contagious diffusion from the Indus Valley, hierarchical diffusion to Southeast Asia, and relocation diffusion via British Empire.
- Buddhism: Primarily due to the Silk Road (contagious diffusion).
- Sikhism: Due to migration during the British Empire (relocation diffusion).
- Judaism: Migration and trade (relocation & contagious diffusion).
- Christianity: Missionaries, especially in the Americas (contagious & relocation diffusion).
- Islam: Military conquest and trade, including the Silk Road (relocation & contagious diffusion).

UNIT 3: DIFFUSION OF LANGUAGE

Language Hearths: Geographic origin or center where a particular cultural trait, innovation, or practice begins and then spread to other areas.
Language Family: Collection of languages related through a common ancestral language, known as a proto-language.
- Indo-European: English, Spanish, French, German, etc.
- Sino-Tibetan: Chinese, Tibetan, Burmese Afro-Asiactic : Berber, Chadic, Egyptian
Colonization: Colonization plays a big role in the diffusion of languages. For example, English was spread by the British to nearly all the land they conquered. Some of these places included North America, India, Australia, and parts of Africa.

UNIT 3: EFFECTS OF DIFFUSION

Syncretism: Blending of different religious beliefs, practices, and traditions to create a new, cohesive system of faith.
Multiculturalism: Coexistence of diverse cultural groups within a society, promoting the recognition, appreciation, and preservation of different cultural identities.
Acculturation: Exchange of cultural traits between different group, maintaining elements of their original culture.
Assimilation: Complete adoption of the dominant culture’s practices, beliefs, and values by a minority group, abandoning their original culture.

Unit 3: Introduction to culture

Cultural traits: Specific, identifiable element or characteristic of a culture Ex: Wearing costume on Halloween
Globalization: Increasing interconnectedness of economic, political, and social systems across the globe Ex: widespread of American restaurants Ex: Mcdonalds in other countries
Cultural relativism: The idea that a person's beliefs, values, and practices should be understood based on that person's own culture, rather than be judged through the eyes of another culture Ex: in some countries like China, it is acceptable to stare at others in public, or to stand very close to others in public spaces
Ethnocentrism: Judging people or traditions based on your own cultural standards Ex: Foreigners judging a country based on its culture
Homogenization thesis: The idea that globalization and increasing interconnectedness to a shrinking of cultural diversity, resulting in a more uniform world Ex: global spread of fast food chains like MCdonalds or Starbucks
Globalization thesis: The increasing interconnectedness of the world’s economies, culture, and political systems, often facilitated by advancements in transportation, communication and transportation Ex: global chain of supplies like electronics in other parts of the world. Apple being an international company.
Polarization thesis: Explains the increasing separation or division within a region society, or even the global system Ex: People divided based on the their voting party.

Unit 3: Types of Diffusion

Cultural diffusion: The spread of cultural traits from one culture to another Ex: Chinese food in America
Absorbing barriers: A physical or social feature that completely prevents or significantly hinders the movement, spread, or diffusion of people, ideas, or other cultural elements Ex: edge of a cliff
Permeable barriers: Geographical or social factors that restrict movement or diffusion, but do not completely block it Ex: Coffee filters
Independent inventions: The development of a new idea, practice, or material in a location without prior knowledge or influence from another location Ex:the development of farming in different parts of the world,such as the Middle East and Mesoamerica
Relocation diffusion: The spread of an idea or characteristic through the physical movement of people from one place to another Ex: widespread of different cuisines in other parts of the world
Stimulus diffusion: The spread of an idea or innovation that is adapted and modified as it spreads, rather than being adopted in its original form Ex: Mcdonalds adapting to menus to suit culture like no beef burgers in India
Expansion diffusion: The spread of a cultural trait from its origin to other places while the trait remains strong at its original location Ex:
Hierarchical diffusion: The spread of ideas, innovations, or trends from a higher level of authority or prominence down to a lower level Ex:
Contagious diffusion: The rapid spread of an idea, innovation, or cultural trait from its origin to a wider population, much like an epidemic Ex:

Unit 3 Cultural landscape - religion

Cultural landscape are the changes made by humans to the environment. Which includes buildings crops and more
Sacred sites are spots that serve significant meaning to a religion. This could even be a whole city such as Jerusalem
Sequent Occupance Describes how different groups have impacted a region, leaving unique imprints.

Unit 3 Patterns Related to Religion

Universalizing Religions:
- Christianity
- Islam
- Buddhism
- sikhism
Ethnic Religions:
- Hinduism
- Judaism

Unit 3 Historical Causes of Diffusion

Historical causes of diffusion are the events of the past that spread cultural elements and ideas from one society or region to another over time. Examples are Migration, Colonialism, and Religion.
Migration is a cause of historical diffusion as the process of migration is when people move from one place to another bringing their culture and spreading in the place that is migrated to.
Religion is a cause of historical diffusion as it spreads over culture. An example of religion in the context of historical diffusion would be the Spanish conquest as the Spanish conquered different places like South America and the Philippines spreading Catholicism.
Colonialism is a cause of historical diffusion as it is the spread to many parts of the world. An example would be the European Colonization of the Americas bringing both their culture and language, and spreading it all over the Americas.

Unit 3 Contemporary Causes of Diffusion

Contemporary causes of Diffusion is a means to the spread of cultural elements, and practices from one place to another. This usually occurs through the technological advancements like the internet.
- Social media is an example of contemporary diffusion as it’s the process of spreading information such as the news, politics, or false info.
- Streaming services would be an example of contemporary diffusion, as many streaming services possess many cultures that can become diffused across nations.
- The globalization of goods is an example of contemporary diffusion as it is the process of goods being distributed around the world exposing many states to different culinary cultures.

Unit 4.1, Intro to Political Geography, Unit 4.2, Influencers of Political Boundaries

State: a politically organized territory with a permanent population, defined boundaries, a recognized government, and sovereignty. Ex. Canada, Japan, Germany.
Nation: a group of people sharing a common cultural identity, often including language, history, and traditions. Ex. Spain, India, France.
Nation-state: a state whose political boundaries align with the cultural boundaries of a single nation, or ethnic group. Ex. Japan.
Multinational-state: a state containing two or more distinct nations, or groups of people sharing a common culture, language, and/or identity, within its borders. Ex. China, Russia, India.
Multi-State-nation: a nation whose cultural identity, or national identity, spans across multiple states. Ex. Koreans, the Kurds.
Stateless Nation: a group of people who share a common culture, language, or history but do not have their own independent state or country. Ex. The Palestinians or Basque.
Autonomous regions: a territory within a state that has a high degree of self-governance and control over its own affairs, but remains a part of the larger state. Ex. Native American reservations.
Political geography in AP Human Geography (APHG) explores the spatial organization of political systems and power relationships, focusing on the interplay between political processes, territorial boundaries, and the state.

Unit 4.1, Intro to Political Geography, Unit 4.2, Influencers of Political Boundaries

Imperialism: The policy of a nation extending its power and influence over other nations or territories, often through military force, political domination, or economic control
Colonialism: The control exercised by one country over another, typically involving the establishment of settlements and the imposition of the colonizer's political, economic, and cultural systems
Sovereignty: A state's independent political authority to govern itself within its territorial boundaries
Self-determination: The right of a nation or group of people to govern themselves and determine their own political status, including the right to form their own state

The Function Of Political Boundaries

An invisible line that marks the outer limit of states territories.
Types: Relic, Superimposed, Subsequent, Antecedent, Geometric, and Consequent.
Examples: A natural boundary is the Rio Grande, separating The U.S. and Mexico. The Berlin Wall is a relic boundary. A consequent boundary is the boundary between India and Pakistan.
The boundary play significant roles in defining state sovereignty, influence culture, and shaping political landscapes. They impact governance security, and diffusion of religion and languages.
Boundaries also influence global dynamics and the economy.

Internal Boundaries

An Internal Boundary is the line/border that separates an area into two or smaller areas. This can be found in geographic regions, and organizational structures. This includes states, provinces, counties, or districts.
These boundaries are created for various purposes, including governance, resource management and representation.
- Political Representation is the boundaries that are often determined electoral districts. It influences the composition of different populations
- Sometimes, internal boundaries reflect cultural or social differences within a country such as ethnic enclaves
- Internal boundaries can delineate areas for economic planning and development, such as tax collection, and the implementation of regional economics

Forms of Governance

There are two different ways that states govern their territories. Such as Unitary, and Federal. In Federal states, there is more defined division power between the national and subnational levels. Unitary states, the national government has more centralized power.
Unitary States: Is the political system where power is in central government and subnational holds very little power EX.) United Kingdom, Japan, and China
Subnational: Any political unit or organization EX.) The US, where each state operates under its own laws, though subject to federal law.
Federal State: A political system where power is divided between a central government and smaller state governments What is Forms of Governance? It’s a Power given to concentrated in the national government, with limited power delegated to local or regional governments.

Defining Revolutionary Traces

Defining Revolutionary Traces reflects how past revolutions have shaped the present-day characteristics of a place.
This revolution, was a period time in human history that marked, the shift from hunter-gatherer lifestyles to settled agricultural societies.
2nd Agriculture involves a series of innovations and improvements in agricultural practices. This was developed in the 17th century to the early 19th century.
- Crop Rotation
- Selective breeding
- Enclosure movement
- Technological Advances
Increased food production, which supported a growing population and reduced the risk of famine. Economic Growth created surpluses that could be traded, and by freeing up labor for other industries

Unit 4

Devolution is the transfer of power from a central government to a local governments and disintegration is the separation of a state

Examples of devolution & disintegration

U.K has devolved powers to Scotland, Wales, and northern Ireland
Supranationalism is the process where nation states pass on power to a higher authority to achieve common goals
Example:
European Union

Unit 4

Consequences of Centrifugal and Centripetal forces divides forces up a state and leads up to balkanization while centripetal forces unify a state and bring together one another, consequences can be the weakening of a state or cause some arguments