Modern World History: Building the French Republic
Building the French Republic: A Seventy-Year Journey
In the aftermath of the Reign of Terror, France was governed by the ineffective Directory, which failed to provide political stability, address economic problems, or end ongoing wars.
The transition to a stable democracy in France took approximately 70 years, starting with Napoleon Bonaparte's overthrow of the Directory and culminating in the formation of the Third Republic.
This prolonged period was necessary for France to establish core components of democracy: the rule of law, effective governing institutions, and a civil society educated on peaceful political conflict resolution.
The Rise and Rule of Napoleon Bonaparte
Emergence as a Leader: Napoleon Bonaparte rose to prominence as a highly popular general in the revolutionary French army, celebrated for his brilliant military victories against France's enemies.
Early Career and Coup d'État:
He gained support from the Jacobins, becoming a general with his own army by age 26.
After saving the Directory from a rebellion in 1795, he recognized its weakness as an opportunity.
In 1799, Napoleon orchestrated a bloodless coup d'état, or "stroke of state," overthrowing the Directory with the support of government and army factions.
Consul and Emperor:
At age 30, Napoleon initially took the title "First Consul" but effectively ruled as a dictator.
On December 2, 1804, with widespread support from the French people, he crowned himself Emperor of France, establishing a new monarchy 15 years after the Bourbon monarchy's abolition and 11 years after Louis XIV's execution.
He sought to establish a Bonaparte dynasty by placing his relatives on the thrones of conquered European countries.
Consolidating Revolutionary Ideals (with a trade-off):
Napoleon declared, "The Revolution is over. I am the Revolution," aiming to consolidate its ideals.
He granted the French people theoretical equality in law, opportunities for social improvement, and a strong sense of national identity (fraternity).
However, this came at the cost of surrendering their liberty, as Napoleon ruled as an absolute monarch.
His rule was characterized by strict press censorship and a ruthless secret police to suppress dissent.
He insisted on direct control over all parts of his empire and personally led the French army in battle.
The Napoleonic Code:
This is considered his greatest legacy in redesigning France.
Under his direction, a team of lawyers compiled and reorganized approximately 300 diverse French legal systems into a single body of five codes of law.
These codes covered all aspects of law and guaranteed legal equality for all citizens.
Administrative and Educational Reforms:
Napoleon reformed the civil service, making government administration more effective and transparent. Corrupt officials were dismissed, and taxation was fair.
He established public schools, known as lycees, to educate children for government service, promoting a meritocracy where talent, not birth, determined positions of power.
Economic Stabilization:
He stabilized the French economy, which had suffered over a decade of revolutionary chaos.
The Bank of France was established in 1800 to regulate the money supply.
A new currency, the franc, became the core of the French economy until its replacement by the Euro in 1999.
These actions brought stability and earned him overwhelming popular support, leading to his election as emperor in 1804.
Napoleonic Wars and Downfall:
Despite his popularity within France, Napoleon was highly unpopular abroad due to his incessant wars across Europe.
By 1810, he had built the largest European empire since the Roman Empire, defeating most major powers and forcing them into alliances.
The only country he couldn't defeat was Britain, which continually supported European resistance.
His prolonged struggle against Britain ultimately led to the disastrous invasion of Russia in 1812, which marked the beginning of his downfall.
In 1814, a united coalition of European countries defeated Napoleon.
(The Napoleonic Wars will be covered in detail in the unit on Nationalism.)
The Congress of Vienna and the Bourbon Restoration
Congress of Vienna (1814):
Following Napoleon's defeat, leaders of major European nations convened in Vienna, Austria.
Their primary goal was to reestablish traditional monarchical powers and suppress the revolutionary ideals of the French Revolution.
Austrian Foreign Minister Prince Klemens von Metternich articulated this aim: "The first and greatest concern for the immense majority of every nation is the stability of laws - never their change."
Louis XVIII (1814-1824):
Louis XVIII, brother of the executed Louis XVI, was installed as the new king of France.
He generally ruled as a moderate, seeking popular support.
Although an absolute monarch, he governed with the advice of a Chamber of Deputies, elected by the wealthiest men in France.
Charles X (1824-1830):
Upon Louis XVIII's death, his brother Charles X, a staunch reactionary, ascended to the throne.
He sought to compensate nobles for lands and estates lost during the Revolution, a move that made him highly unpopular with the French populace.
The July Revolution (1830) and the "Citizen King" Louis Philippe
The July Revolution:
In July 1830, Parisian workers and liberals violently revolted against Charles X.
Royal soldiers refused to suppress the rebellion and instead joined it.
King Charles X fled France in the face of this popular uprising.
Louis Philippe (1830-1848):
The Chamber of Deputies voted Louis Philippe the new king.
He embodied the contradictions in France, balancing monarchy with elements of democracy.
A member of the Bourbon family, he had also fought for the Revolution in 1789 and even supported the Jacobins.
He took the title "King of the French," implying his right to rule derived from popular will, earning him the moniker "Citizen King" (a reference to the term "citizen" from the First Republic).
Reforms and Limitations:
He extended voting rights to those with significant property, encompassing about 1\% of the population, a nod to liberal democracy balanced by the conservative belief that property owners would support stability.
His chief minister advised aspiring participants in government to "work hard, grow rich, and so gain the vote."
His government supported freedom of the press and the right to assemble, crucial for developing civil society.
In 1833, Louis Philippe established a system of state-run elementary schools for both boys and girls, significantly raising literacy rates.
However, many poor children still did not attend regularly due to family labor needs and the lack of compulsory attendance laws.
Growing Opposition and Downfall:
Louis Philippe's rule primarily benefited the wealthy and middle classes, neglecting the needs of workers and the poor.
After several years of poor harvests, opposition to his rule intensified.
The Revolution of 1848 and the Second Republic
February 1848 Rebellion:
In February 1848, poor French workers again rebelled against King Louis Philippe, who subsequently fled to England.
Establishment of the Second Republic:
France returned to a democratic government, the Second Republic.
All men in France gained the right to vote in an election for a Constituent Assembly tasked with drafting a new constitution.
The election produced a politically moderate Constituent Assembly, which dissatisfied many radical poor workers in Paris who demanded a more radical assembly to provide work and good wages.
June 1848 Uprising:
In June 1848, 100,000 Parisian working-class radicals revolted against the moderate Constituent Assembly.
The assembly called upon the army to restore order.
Three days of brutal street fighting resulted in approximately 10,000 killed or injured.
In contrast to the escalating radicalism of the 1789 Revolution that led to the Reign of Terror, the Second Republic's government demonstrated a willingness to use violence to prevent radical groups from seizing power.
Elections and New Constitution:
In October, a new constitution was announced, and elections were held for president and members of the National Assembly.
Louis Napoleon (Napoleon III) and the Second French Empire
Election of Louis Napoleon (December 1848):
Louis Napoleon, nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, was surprisingly elected president of France.
Having spent most of his life in exile, he led no major political group, but his famous name resonated.
The "Bonaparte" name appealed to diverse groups: conservatives (order), liberals (reform), and radicals (common man), allowing him to garner broad support.
Coup d'État and Empire:
As president, Louis Napoleon clashed with the conservative National Assembly over workers' voting rights.
He used this issue to enflame public anger against the Assembly, demanding the restoration of voting rights.
In December 1851, after the National Assembly rejected his demands, Louis Napoleon, backed by the army, staged a coup d'état, overthrowing the Assembly and the Second Republic.
Later that month, a popular election approved a new constitution making him president for 10 years.
In November 1852, with popular support, he proclaimed himself Emperor of France, taking the title Napoleon III and establishing the Second French Empire.
Authoritarian Rule (First 10 Years):
Initially, Napoleon III ruled as an authoritarian, emulating his uncle by focusing on economic development to secure popular support.
Parisian Urban Renewal: His most visible and lasting project was the demolition of central Paris slums and the rebuilding of the city with wide boulevards, parks, grand buildings, and a modern water/sewer system.
This project aimed to prevent future rebellions (Parisian slums were historical centers of revolutionary activity).
It also generated popularity by creating work for the poor and business opportunities for the middle class.
Railroad Expansion: He oversaw the expansion of the railroad network from 3,000 to 16,000 kilometers.
This fueled modern economic development by requiring the construction of coal and iron mines, steel mills, and a new financial system.
Liberalization (Second 10 Years) and Paving the Way for the Third Republic:
From 1861 onwards, Napoleon III adopted a more liberal approach to maintain middle-class and business support.
Political Reforms:
In 1861, Parliament gained the power to debate and vote on government budgets.
By 1864, freedom of the press and the right to assemble and form political associations were granted.
Workers were given the right to form unions and strike for better conditions.
Education was expanded, made compulsory in larger towns, and girls were allowed to attend university, raising France's literacy rate to 70\%.
In 1869, he allowed some parliamentary leaders to form a government, leading towards a constitutional limited monarchy.
Downfall:
This experiment in limited monarchy was cut short when Napoleon III lost power in 1870 after defeat in the Franco-Prussian War.
(The story of Prussia's transformation into modern Germany through nationalism will be covered in the next unit.)
The Franco-Prussian War (1870) and the Third Republic
Franco-Prussian War:
Napoleon III declared war on Prussia due to a diplomatic dispute, though the underlying cause was Prussia's burgeoning economic and military power in Central Europe.
Napoleon III personally led the French army and was captured after its defeat at the Battle of Sedan.
Despite his capture, the French Parliament declared the formation of the Third Republic, which continued to fight for another 4 months before surrendering to the Prussians in 1871.
The Third Republic and The Paris Commune:
Born into a bitterly divided society, the Third Republic faced its first major test of democratic governance in the aftermath of the war.
In Paris, a group of radical workers formed a city government known as the Commune, initiating a violent conflict with the moderate national government of the Third Republic.
The Commune sought independence from the national government and aimed to implement radical economic and social programs for workers and the poor.
It ruled Paris for two months until May 1871, when the Third Republic's government ordered the army to retake the city.
A week of bloody street fighting ensued, resulting in 10,000 deaths or injuries and the destruction of large parts of central Paris.
Paris remained under martial law (military rule) for five years after the army captured the city.
Legacy of Stability:
The Third Republic emerged from the conflict with the Commune as a stronger, more organized democratic government.
It successfully maintained freedom and order through significant challenges, including World War One.
The Third Republic only collapsed in 1940 when Nazi Germany defeated France.
Adolphe Thiers, a leader in the Third Republic, famously stated that the republic endured because it was "the form of government that divides France least."