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Restoration Theatre

Restoration comedy, a vibrant and often controversial genre, flourished on the English stage from 1660 to 1700, reflecting the social, cultural, and political changes that swept England following the restoration of the monarchy.

Introduction:

  • Following an 18-year ban on public stage performances under the Puritan regime, the reopening of theaters in 1660 marked a renaissance for English drama [1].

  • Comedy, once considered a secondary form, emerged as the dominant genre, catering to a society eager for entertainment and escapism after years of austerity and turmoil. [1]

  • This era saw a shift from the tragedies of Shakespeare and Marlowe to lighter, wittier plays that engaged with contemporary social mores and explored themes of romance, courtship, marriage, and sexuality with unprecedented openness [1, 2].

Aristocratic Comedies (1660-1680):

  • The early years of Restoration comedy were characterized by a focus on the lives and loves of the aristocracy [3, 4].

  • These "hard" comedies, as they are often called, celebrated a libertine lifestyle marked by sexual intrigue and conquest, mirroring the atmosphere of the court of Charles II [5].

  • Playwrights like John Dryden, William Wycherley, and George Etherege captured the witty repartee and amoral pursuits of the upper class, often pushing the boundaries of what was considered acceptable on stage. [5]

  • These comedies borrowed elements from various sources, including French and Spanish plays, Jacobean and Caroline drama, and even classical Greek and Roman comedies, creating a blend of humor and social commentary [4].

Examples of Aristocratic Comedies:

  • William Wycherley's The Country Wife (1675): This play epitomizes the audacity and bawdiness of aristocratic comedy. It follows the exploits of Horner, a rake who feigns impotence to gain access to the wives of unsuspecting husbands. The play is notable for its outrageous "China scene," where sexual encounters are implied through a veiled dialogue about Horner's china collection [6].

  • George Etherege's The Man of Mode (1676): This comedy features Dorimant, the quintessential Restoration rake, a witty, fashionable, and sexually irresistible aristocrat who embodies the ideals of the age. The play offers a satirical glimpse into the world of the elite, highlighting their frivolous pursuits and social maneuvering [5].

Decline of Comedy (1678-1690):

  • After the initial burst of creative energy, Restoration comedy experienced a period of decline starting in the late 1670s [7].

  • Several factors contributed to this decline, including:The merger of the King's Company and the Duke's Company in 1682, which created a monopoly on the London stage and reduced the demand for new plays [7, 8].

  • Growing political tensions and anxieties following events like the Popish Plot (1678) and the Exclusion Crisis (1682), which shifted public attention away from lighthearted entertainment and toward more serious political drama [7].

Comedy Renaissance (1690-1700):

  • A brief resurgence of comedy occurred in the 1690s, driven by playwrights like William Congreve and John Vanbrugh [9].

  • These "softer" comedies reflected evolving social attitudes and a growing middle-class audience that demanded more relatable characters and storylines [9].

  • The focus shifted from the sexual escapades of the elite to the complexities of marriage and relationships, exploring themes of love, fidelity, and social expectations. [9]

Examples of the Comedy Renaissance:

  • William Congreve's Love for Love (1695) and The Way of the World (1700): These plays showcase Congreve's mastery of witty dialogue and intricate plotting. Love for Love centers on a battle of wits between lovers, while The Way of the World explores the challenges of marriage and societal pressures. Both plays reveal a more nuanced approach to relationships compared to earlier Restoration comedies [10].

  • John Vanbrugh's The Provoked Wife (1697): This play delves into the plight of Lady Brute, who is trapped in a miserable marriage with the boorish Sir John Brute. The Provoked Wife tackles contemporary social issues like the legal constraints faced by women in marriage and the possibility of separation and "divorce" [11].

End of Restoration Comedy:

  • Despite its brief revival, Restoration comedy faced mounting criticism toward the end of the 17th century [12].

  • A confluence of factors led to its demise, including:A shift in public taste toward more sentimental and moralizing entertainment [12].

  • The influence of social reformers like Jeremy Collier, whose 1698 pamphlet, Short View of the Immorality and Profaneness of the English Stage, condemned the perceived indecency and profanity of Restoration plays [12].

  • Changing demographics, with a rising middle class that favored less aristocratic and more didactic forms of theater [12].

  • By the early 18th century, Restoration comedy had largely given way to sentimental comedy, a genre that emphasized morality, virtue, and emotional appeal. [12]

Legacy of Restoration Comedy:

  • Though its reign was relatively short-lived, Restoration comedy left an indelible mark on English theater and literature [13].

  • Its witty dialogue, social satire, and exploration of human relationships influenced subsequent generations of playwrights, including Richard Brinsley Sheridan, whose comedies like The Rivals (1775) echoed the spirit of the Restoration era [14].

  • While Restoration comedy faced censorship and adaptation in later centuries due to its frankness, it has experienced a revival in recent decades, with modern audiences appreciating its humor, wit, and insight into human nature. [15-17]

Theatrical Companies of the English Restoration

The English Restoration, a period of great social and political change, saw the resurgence of theater after an 18-year ban by the Puritan regime. This period witnessed the rise of innovative theatrical companies that shaped the landscape of English drama. Here's a closer look at these companies:

Original Patent Companies (1660–1682)

  • Royal Patents: King Charles II, a fervent supporter of theater, granted exclusive rights for play staging, known as Royal patents, to two companies [1]:

  • The King's Company led by Thomas Killigrew.

  • The Duke's Company headed by William Davenant.

  • Repertoire: Both companies initially focused on securing performance rights to existing Jacobean and Caroline plays for financial stability, before venturing into producing new works [1].

  • Lavish Theaters: They constructed magnificent new theaters in Drury Lane and Dorset Gardens, both designed by Christopher Wren. These theaters boasted advanced features like movable scenery and special effects for a captivating theatrical experience [1].

  • Intense Competition: The two companies engaged in fierce rivalry, vying for audience attention, popular actors, and fresh plays. This competitive spirit fueled the creation of new dramatic genres like heroic drama, pathetic drama, and Restoration comedy [2].

United Company (1682–1695)

  • Merger: In 1682, the more successful Duke's Company absorbed the struggling King's Company, resulting in the formation of the United Company [3].

  • Decline in Production: The merger, coupled with the political climate of the time, led to a significant decline in the production of new plays during the 1680s [3].

  • Financial Turmoil: The United Company faced financial difficulties, leading to the involvement of investors ("Adventurers"). The management, under lawyer Christopher Rich, attempted to cut costs by reducing actor salaries and eliminating traditional benefits for senior performers [3].

War of the Theaters (1695–1700)

  • Actors' Rebellion: Dissatisfied with the management's decisions, prominent actors like Thomas Betterton, Elizabeth Barry, and Anne Bracegirdle, backed by public support, staged a walkout [4].

  • Formation of a Cooperative: The rebellious actors secured a Royal "license to perform," circumventing Rich's control over the patents. They established their own cooperative company with equitable rules for management, profit sharing, and actor welfare [5].

  • Renewed Competition: London once again had two competing companies, invigorating Restoration drama but also leading to a race to the bottom in catering to public taste [6].

  • Emergence of Sentimental Comedy: This period witnessed the birth of sentimental comedy, a genre that would eventually eclipse the popularity of Restoration comedy [6].

The theatrical companies of the English Restoration played a crucial role in shaping the dramatic landscape of the era. Their innovations, rivalries, and eventual transformations contributed significantly to the development of new genres and acting styles that left an enduring legacy on English theater.

The introduction of professional actresses and the rise of celebrity actors marked a significant shift in the landscape of English theater during the Restoration period.

First Actresses [1-3]

  • Novelty and Appeal: The appearance of women on stage was a groundbreaking change, captivating audiences who were eager to see women performing in various roles, including those with suggestive and comedic elements.

  • Breeches Roles: Actresses also began performing in "breeches roles", donning male attire to portray witty heroines who disguised themselves as boys for various reasons.

  • These roles allowed actresses to showcase a wider range of behaviors typically associated with men.

  • While some view these roles as subversive to gender norms, others argue they served to further objectify actresses for the male gaze.

  • Notable Actresses:Nell Gwynn, mistress of King Charles II.

  • Elizabeth Barry, a renowned tragedienne known for her emotional performances.

  • Anne Bracegirdle, a celebrated comedienne of the 1690s.

  • Susanna Mountfort, also known as Susanna Verbruggen, famous for her breeches roles.

First Celebrity Actors [4-6]

  • Rising Stardom: Both male and female actors achieved a new level of public recognition and celebrity status during the Restoration. Audiences were drawn to the talents of their favorite performers, whose popularity rivaled that of the plays themselves.

  • Power and Influence: The competitive theatrical landscape, with two companies vying for talent, empowered actors to negotiate favorable contracts, including company shares and benefit performances.

  • Prominent Actors:Thomas Betterton:Known for his expressive acting style.

  • Highly praised for his portrayal of Hamlet and the iconic Restoration rake, Dorimant, in The Man of Mode.

  • Instrumental in the actors' revolt of 1695 and became the acting manager of the newly formed cooperative company.

  • Elizabeth Barry: A leading actress known for her emotional depth and ability to evoke tears from the audience. She also played a key role in the actors' rebellion.

Impact on Theater [4-6]

  • The emergence of actresses and celebrity actors transformed the dynamics of English theater.

  • Playwrights became less significant, with audiences prioritizing the performances of their favorite actors.

  • The popularity of actors contributed to the development of more nuanced acting styles and the elevation of the acting profession.

The sources offer contrasting perspectives from critics Jacqueline Pearson and Elizabeth Howe on the impact of breeches roles, where actresses performed in male attire.

  • Jacqueline Pearson views these roles as potentially "subversive of conventional gender roles and empowering for female members of the audience." [1] She suggests that by taking on male attire and behaviors, actresses challenged traditional gender expectations and offered a glimpse of empowerment to female viewers.

  • Elizabeth Howe, however, offers a contrasting view, arguing that breeches roles ultimately served to "display the actress as a sexual object" to male patrons. [1] She contends that the male disguise, when considered alongside playtexts and other elements of the performance, primarily emphasized the actress's body and reinforced her objectification.

Regarding Thomas Betterton's performance as Hamlet, the source quotes Samuel Pepys' diary entry from 1661: "…did the prince's part beyond imagination." [2] This quote highlights the profound impression Betterton's performance made on Pepys, suggesting that even as a young actor, Betterton's talent and portrayal of Hamlet were exceptional and captivating.

Stage and Critical Reception After Restoration Comedy

The sources detail how Restoration comedy, despite its initial popularity, waned in favor by the end of the 17th century. They highlight the changing tastes of audiences and the emergence of more conservative social values that led to the genre's decline. [1] Public opinion shifted towards a preference for respectability and seriousness, moving away from the risqué themes and witty dialogue that characterized Restoration comedy. [1] This shift is reflected in the declining popularity of even "softer" comedies like those by Congreve and Vanbrugh. [1]

Changing Stage Practices

Due to its sexual frankness, Restoration comedy faced significant challenges in the following centuries:

  • Adaptation and Censorship: Rather than staging original scripts, theater producers often heavily adapted or censored Restoration comedies to align with the prevailing moral sensibilities. [2] This practice reflects the enduring discomfort with the genre's open treatment of sexuality and societal norms.

  • Modern Revival: In recent decades, there has been a resurgence of interest in staging authentic Restoration comedies. [2] Modern audiences seem more receptive to the humor and social commentary embedded in these plays, recognizing their value beyond the perceived impropriety that troubled earlier generations.

  • Expanding Repertoire: The renewed interest extends beyond the canonical works of Wycherley, Etherege, and Congreve. [2] Plays by Vanbrugh, Southerne, and Aphra Behn, whose works were once considered controversial or difficult to stage, have found new life in contemporary theater, enriching the understanding and appreciation of Restoration drama's diversity.

Evolution of Literary Criticism

The sources describe the critical reception of Restoration comedy as a journey from outright condemnation to grudging acknowledgment and, finally, to scholarly appreciation:

  • Victorian Criticism: Critics of the Victorian era, such as William Hazlitt, grappled with the tension between recognizing the linguistic brilliance and wit of playwrights like Etherege, Wycherley, and Congreve while simultaneously feeling compelled to criticize their perceived immorality. [3] Aphra Behn, a woman writing in this genre, faced even harsher criticism, highlighting the double standards of the time. [3]

  • Early 20th Century Scholarship: A small group of academics, like Montague Summers, championed Restoration comedy, ensuring that works, particularly those by Behn, remained accessible through their scholarly editions. [3] Their efforts paved the way for a more nuanced understanding of the genre and its historical context.

  • Contemporary Critical Approaches: In recent times, scholarly perspectives on Restoration comedy have transformed. [4] The genre has become a subject of serious academic inquiry, with scholars employing a range of theoretical approaches to explore its themes, social commentary, and artistic merit. The availability of digital archives has also facilitated a deeper and more comprehensive examination of lesser-known works from the period. [4]

  • Focus on Women Playwrights: There is a growing interest in examining the contributions of women playwrights who emerged during and after the peak of Restoration comedy, such as Delarivier Manley, Mary Pix, Catharine Trotter, and Susannah Centlivre. [4] Their works offer unique perspectives on gender, social dynamics, and the evolving role of women in society.

This evolution in critical reception reflects a broader shift in cultural attitudes towards sexuality and social norms, allowing for a more balanced and appreciative assessment of Restoration comedy's artistic and historical significance.

Notable Restoration Comedies: A List from the Sources

The sources provide a list of notable comedies from the Restoration era, spanning from the 1660s to the early 1700s. The list highlights playwrights and their significant works, showcasing the evolution of comedy during this period.

  • Charles Sedley: The Mulberry-Garden (1668) [1]

  • George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham: The Rehearsal (1671) [1]

  • John Dryden: Marriage-A-la-Mode (1672) [1]

  • William Wycherley: The Country Wife (1675), The Plain-Dealer (1676) [1]

  • As discussed earlier, The Country Wife, with its infamous "China scene," is often considered one of the most controversial and representative examples of the "hard" comedies that characterized the early Restoration period. [2, 3]

  • George Etherege: Love in a Tub (1664), The Man of Mode (1676) [1]

  • The Man of Mode features the character Dorimant, who embodies the archetype of the witty and fashionable Restoration rake. This play exemplifies the aristocratic comedies that flourished during the 1660s and 1670s. [2, 4]

  • Aphra Behn: The Rover (1677), The Roundheads (1681), The Rover, Part II (1681), The Lucky Chance (1686) [1]

  • Behn holds a unique position as a prominent female playwright of the Restoration era. The sources note that she faced particular scrutiny and criticism for her frank portrayal of female sexuality in comedies like The Rover, which has gained renewed popularity in contemporary stagings. [5-7]

  • Thomas Shadwell: Bury Fair (1689) [1]

  • Thomas Southerne: Sir Anthony Love (1690), The Wives Excuse (1691) [1]

  • Southerne's works, like The Wives Excuse, illustrate the shift towards "softer" comedies that emerged in the 1690s. These plays explored the complexities of marriage and social dynamics with a more introspective and less bawdy tone compared to the earlier comedies. [8]

  • William Congreve: The Old Bachelor (1693), Love For Love (1695), The Way of the World (1700) [1]

  • Congreve is considered one of the most skilled writers of the later Restoration period. His play Love For Love marked the beginning of a brief "comedy renaissance" in the mid-1690s. The Way of the World, though initially met with mixed reactions, is now considered a masterpiece of Restoration comedy. [9-11]

  • John Vanbrugh: The Relapse (1696), The Provoked Wife (1697) [1]

  • We previously discussed The Provoked Wife, a play that examines marital discord and societal expectations within the context of changing attitudes towards legal separation and women's autonomy in the late 17th century. [12]

  • George Farquhar: Love and a Bottle (1698), The Constant Couple (1699), Sir Harry Wildair (1701), The Recruiting Officer (1706), The Beaux' Stratagem (1707) [1]

  • Susannah Centlivre: The Perjured Husband (1700), The Basset-Table (1705), The Busie Body (1709) [1]

  • Richard Brinsley Sheridan: The Rivals (1775) [1]

  • It is worth noting that Sheridan's The Rivals, while listed here, falls outside the traditional timeframe of Restoration comedy, which typically ends around 1700. Its inclusion might reflect the play's thematic and stylistic connections to the Restoration tradition, even though it was written much later.