2026 IB Psychology Exam Study Guide

IB Psychology Exam Study Guide: Cognitive Approach

Models of Memory

  • Multi-store model
      - Developed by Atkinson and Shiffrin.
      - HM Case Study (Milner): Demonstrates the distinction between short-term and long-term memory. After surgery to alleviate epilepsy, HM could not form new long-term memories but retained short-term memory.
      - Short-term memory (STM): Temporary storage; limited capacity (typically 7±2 items).
      - Long-term memory (LTM): Stores large amounts of information indefinitely.

  • Working Memory
      - Introduced by Baddeley and Hitch.
      - Components of Working Memory:
        - Visuospatial Sketchpad: Processes visual and spatial information.
        - Phonological Loop: Processes auditory information, includes a phonological store and a rehearsal system.
      - Landry & Bartling Study: Examines the effects of articulatory suppression on the processing of information.

  • Schema Theory
      - Explains how knowledge is organized and interpreted.
      - Key Processes:
        - Assimilation: Integrating new information into existing schemas.
        - Accommodation: Altering existing schemas to fit new information.
      - Loftus & Palmer Study: Investigates the impact of leading questions on memory.
      - Brewer & Treyens Study: Highlights the role of schemas in memory recall.

  • Flashbulb Memory
      - Definition: Vivid, detailed memories of significant events.
      - Kukofsky Study: Examines cultural differences in flashbulb memories.
      - Sharot Study: Researches the neurobiological aspects of flashbulb memory.

Thinking and Decision Making

  • Dual Processing Theory
      - Proposes two systems of thought:
        - System I: Intuitive, fast, automatic thinking.
        - System II: Slower, deliberate, rational thinking.
      - Cognitive Misers: The tendency to save cognitive resources by relying on System I.
      - Heuristics:
        - Halo Effect (Dion et al): The tendency to let one's overall impression of a person influence specific evaluations.
        - Anchoring Bias: Relying too heavily on the first piece of information encountered.
      - Tversky & Kahneman (1974): Studies on biases in decision making.

Reliability of Cognition

  • Reconstructive Memory: Memory is not perfectly accurate and is influenced by various factors.
  • Heuristics and Flashbulb Memory: Highlight the fallibility of memory.
  • Critical Evaluation:
      - Memory models provide frameworks but may be too simplistic.
      - Interactions between components of Working Memory unclear.
      - Role of emotion not considered in traditional models, leading to distortions in memory.
      - Studies may lack ecological validity.

Biological Approach

Techniques Used to Study the Brain

  • MRI: Magnetic resonance imaging; detailed images of brain structures (e.g., HM - Milner).
  • fMRI: Functional MRI; measures brain activity by tracking changes in blood flow (e.g., Antonova 2011).

Localization

  • Landmark Studies:
      - HM: Identifies the role of the hippocampus in memory.
      - Maguire: Examines London taxi drivers' brains to show hippocampal plasticity.
      - Sharot's Work: Investigates localization regarding flashbulb memories.

Neuroplasticity

  • Concept of Plasticity: The brain's ability to change and adapt.
  • Dendritic Branching and Neural Pruning: Processes essential for brain development and efficiency.
  • Maguire (2000): Demonstrates how experiential learning can change brain structure.

Neurotransmitters

  • Acetylcholine: Important for learning and memory; studied by Antonova (2011).
      - Found to play a critical role in memory retrieval processes.
  • Love Cocktail: Comprises Dopamine, Noradrenaline, and Serotonin which influence mood and behavior (Fisher et al. (2005)).
      - Study illustrates the biological underpinnings of romantic love.

Genes and Behavior

  • Genetic Considerations:
      - Twin Studies: Investigate genetic versus environmental influences (e.g., Kendler on Depression).
      - Epigenetics: Studies impacts of environment on gene expression.
      - Diathesis-Stress Model: Links genetic predispositions with environmental stressors to develop disorders (e.g., Bailey & Pillard on homosexuality).
      - Concordance rates: Indicate how often both twins have the same characteristic.
      - Monozygotic and Dizygotic Twins: Used for assessing genetic influence.

Hormones and Pheromones

  • Cortisol: Studied by Newcomer; affects stress response and memory.
  • Testosterone: Explored by Ronay & von Hippel's research on risk-taking behavior.
  • Pheromones: Chemical signals that impact behavior (e.g., Wedekind’s research on MHC).
  • Androstandienone: A studied pheromone influencing human attraction.

Critiques and Ethical Considerations

  • Research Limitations:
      - Lack of ecological validity in studies.
      - Small sample sizes due to high costs of fMRI studies.
      - Tensions between biological determinism and cultural implications.
      - Ethical issues surrounding informed consent and use of genetic data.

Sociocultural Approach

Culture’s Influence on Behavior and Cognition

  • Individualism vs. Collectivism: Differentiates how cultures prioritize individual vs. group needs.
      - Cultural Norms: Standards that dictate accepted behaviors in a culture.
      - Decision Making (Chen et al 2005): Studies how cultural context informs decisions.
      - Memory (Kulkofsky): Investigates cultural factors in memory recall.

Cultural Dimensions

  • Cultural Dimensions Explained:
      - Individualism/Collectivism, Long-term/Short-term orientation.

Enculturation and Acculturation

  • Enculturation: Process by which individuals learn their own culture.
      - Social Cognitive Theory & Gender Roles (Kimball 1986): Explains how social influences shape gender roles.

  • Acculturation: The process of adapting to a new culture (Lueck & Wilson).
      - Types of acculturation include Marginalization, Separation, Integration, and Assimilation.

Social Identity Theory (SIT)

  • Defines how group membership influences individual behavior.
      - Components of SIT:
        - Social Categorization: Classifying oneself and others into groups.
        - Social Identification: Identifying with a specific group.
        - Social Comparison: Comparing groups, often leading to in-group bias.
      - Research Evidence: Abrams (1990), Drury et al (2009), Hilliard & Liben (2010) validate the theory.

Cognitive Theories and Stereotypes

  • Formation of Stereotypes:
      - Stereotype: A widely held but oversimplified idea of a group.
      - Illusory Correlation: Perception of a relationship where none exists.
      - Confirmation Bias: Seeking information that conforms to existing beliefs.
      - Grain of Truth Hypothesis: Some stereotypes may be based on truth.

Effects of Stereotypes

  • Stereotype Threat: Anxiety experienced by individuals when they risk confirming negative stereotypes (Steele & Aronson 1995).
  • Research Limitations: Issues with reliability and generalizability in stereotype research.

Abnormal Psychology

Overview of Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)

  • Biological Etiologies:
      - Genetic Vulnerability: Hereditary factors influencing susceptibility.
      - Serotonin Hypothesis: Links low serotonin levels to MDD.
      - Neurogenesis Theory: Proposes that depression affects the creation of new neurons.
      - HPA-axis Hyperactivity: Involves stress response and MDD symptoms.
      - Treatment Etiology Fallacy: Misinterpretation that one treatment approach addresses all aspects.
      - Bidirectional Ambiguity: Difficulty in distinguishing cause and effect relationships.

  • Cognitive Etiologies: Focused on faulty thinking patterns, including Aaron Beck’s six types of faulty thinking (e.g., dichotomous thinking, overgeneralization).

Sociocultural Etiologies

  • Vulnerability Model (Brown & Harris): Examines how social and environmental factors contribute to MDD.
      - Protection and vulnerability factors must be considered.
      - Provoking Agents: Triggers that may lead to the onset of disorders.
      - Diathesis-stress model: Interaction between genetic predisposition and environmental stressors.

Prevalence and Treatment of MDD

  • Prevalence Rates:
      - Understanding etic vs. emic approaches in determining prevalence.
      - Discusses complexities (e.g., stigma, access to mental health care).

  • Treatments:
      - Biological Treatments: Focus on SSRIs and their side effects; understand relapse and remission parameters.
      - Psychological Treatments: Discuss CBT techniques, the role of culture, and indigenous therapies.

  • Effectiveness of Treatment:
      - Challenges in measuring treatment outcomes; research methods including double-blind studies and meta-analyses.
      - Discussing treatment efficacy while recognizing the complexities of individual differences.

Ethical Considerations
  • Informed Consent: Importance of ensuring total comprehension among participants.
  • Anonymity of Mental Health Data: Safeguarding participant data during research.