STUDY GUIDE FOR MID-TERM EXAM
1. Early Colonization
JOINT STOCK COMPANIES & ROYAL CHARTERS
Companies:
Significant capital for investment; allowed entrepreneurs to pool resources and share risks for colonial development ventures.
Responsible for funding labor, acquiring materials, organizing supply lines, and managing transportation of colonists and goods across the Atlantic.
Examples include the Virginia Company of London and the Plymouth Company.
Crown:
Granted land ownership to the companies through a Royal Charter, essentially a written contract outlining rights and responsibilities.
Compensated with a percentage of profits, typically 20% of all gold and silver discovered, reflecting the Crown's stake in the colonial enterprise.
Parliament:
Retained the constitutional power to levy taxes and customs duties on goods, impacting colonial trade and revenue.
SIR HUMPHREY GILBERT & SIR WALTER RALEIGH
The London/Virginia Company of Adventurers:
Formed to finance and manage early attempts at English colonization in North America, driven by the desire for wealth and strategic advantage against Spain.
ROANOKE: The First Expedition, “Confound the Spanish”.
An attempt to establish an English settlement in North America, with the aim of creating a base to harass Spanish shipping and find valuable resources.
Notable key figures: Philip Amadas and Simon Fernandez led reconnaissance missions in 1584, exploring the Outer Banks of North Carolina.
Manteo and Wanchese:
Two Native individuals from the Roanoke area who traveled back to England with the explorers, providing invaluable insights into local cultures and geography, but also illustrating the complex interactions between natives and Europeans.
2nd Expedition
Led by Sir Richard Grenville, Captain Ralph Lane, and artist John White in 1585.
Included attempts to build a more permanent military settlement on Roanoke Island, focusing on exploring for resources and establishing a presence.
Faced severe challenges due to insufficient supplies and growing hostility with local Native American tribes.
Aquascagoc: A local Native American tribe whose village was tragically burned by English colonists in retaliation for a stolen silver cup, escalating tensions.
3rd Expedition
Known as the “Lost Colony,” led by Governor John White in 1587, alongside navigator Simon Fernandez.
Intended to establish an agricultural colony with families, including White's daughter, Eleanor Dare, and granddaughter Virginia Dare (the first English child born in the Americas).
White returned to England for supplies but was delayed by The War of the Armada (1588-1589):
A major naval conflict between England and Spain; England’s focus shifted entirely to national defense, preventing timely resupply of Roanoke.
This conflict indirectly sealed the fate of the Roanoke colonists.
CROATOAN:
The only clue left by the Lost Colony upon John White’s return in 1590, carved into a post. The fate of the colonists remains one of history's great mysteries, potentially integrating with local Native American tribes.
VIRGINIA: JAMSTOWN (1607)
Importance of the marshy location, chosen for defensibility and deep water anchorage, but proved detrimental to health due to disease and poor sanitation, making it a critical site for future English settlements.
John Smith:
Instrumental leader; organized early Jamestown, famously proclaiming, “He that will not work shall not eat,” utilizing desperate measures like strict military discipline and forced labor to maintain the colony's precarious survival.
Highlighted the precarious survival stakes of the early colony, battling disease, starvation, and Native American hostility.
SIR EDWIN SANDYS & The HEADRIGHT SYSTEM (1614+):
As treasurer of the Virginia Company, Sandys implemented this system to encourage landownership and settlement by offering 50 acres of land to anyone who paid for their own passage to Virginia, and an additional 50 acres for every person whose passage they sponsored.
INDENTURED SERVITUDE:
Parameters: Contracts binding labor for a set number of years (typically 4-7) in exchange for passage to America.
Obligations: Servants provided labor, often in arduous agricultural work, to their masters.
Rewards: Upon completion of service, they received “freedom dues,” which could include land, tools, or clothing, granting their independence.
2. Religious Dissent and the Founding of New England
Context of Dissent in England:
Following the English Reformation, the Church of England (Anglican Church) was the established state church.
Many English Protestants were dissatisfied with the Anglican Church, believing it retained too many Catholic practices and structures.
Two major groups emerged:
Separatists (Pilgrims): Believed the Anglican Church was beyond reform and sought to break away entirely to form their own independent congregations.
Puritans: Aimed to “purify” the Anglican Church from within, seeking to simplify worship and doctrine and implement stricter moral codes.
Both groups faced varying degrees of persecution and suppression from the Crown and Anglican hierarchy, driving many to seek religious freedom and the opportunity to establish model societies elsewhere, notably in North America.
Pilgrims (Plymouth Rock, 1620):
Separatists from the Anglican Church who believed it was beyond reform and sought to establish their own congregations.
Fled persecution in England, first seeking religious freedom in Holland (Leiden) before deciding to journey to America, aiming for northern Virginia.
Mayflower Compact:
A foundational document signed by 41 men aboard the Mayflower ship before landing at Plymouth.
Established a temporary, self-governing body based on majority rule, acknowledging King James I but without a specific royal charter for their landing site.
Represented an early form of constitutional government and collective decision-making, binding colonists to obey laws enacted by the community for the general good.
Puritans (Massachusetts Bay, 1630):
A group of English Protestants who aimed to “purify” the Anglican Church from within, rather than separating from it, believing it retained too many Catholic elements.
Led by John Winthrop, who delivered the famous “City Upon a Hill” sermon, articulating the vision for Massachusetts Bay as a model Christian society that would inspire the world.
Great Migration:
A significant wave of Puritan immigration during the 1630s, involving thousands of settlers flocking to Massachusetts Bay.
Driven by increasing religious persecution under King Charles I and Archbishop Laud, along with economic hardship in England.
This influx established a powerful, theocratic society with strict religious and social codes intended to maintain moral purity and communal order.
Congregationalism:
The dominant form of church governance, where each local congregation was autonomous, self-governing, and elected its own ministers.
Emphasized education and literacy, leading to the early establishment of schools and colleges (like Harvard) to enable individuals to read and interpret the Bible for themselves.
Half-Way Covenant (1662):
A compromise religious solution introduced to address declining church membership among the second generation of Puritans.
Allowed the children of baptized but unconverted church members to be baptized, granting them a “half-way” membership without full communion.
Aimed to increase church rolls and maintain Puritan influence but also marked a symbolic decline in the original religious fervor and strict adherence to initial membership requirements.
Roger Williams:
A vocal minister and dissenter who advocated for radical reforms, including the complete separation of church and state and fair dealings with Native Americans, arguing that land should be purchased from them.
Banished from Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1636 for his controversial views, he subsequently founded the colony of Rhode Island.
Rhode Island was established on principles of religious freedom, welcoming those persecuted elsewhere, and had a democratic government.
Anne Hutchinson:
A charismatic spiritual leader who challenged Puritan religious authority by emphasizing direct revelation from God (Antinomianism) over the teachings of ministers and the established church hierarchy.
Held popular religious meetings in her home in Boston, attracting many followers, including prominent figures.
Banished for heresy and sedition in 1637, highlighting the strict conformity demanded by Puritan society and the intolerance for perceived dissent.
3. Parliament and Colonial Order
Mercantilism as Economic Strategy:
An economic theory prevalent during the 17th and 18th centuries, where a nation's wealth and power were determined by its accumulation of gold and silver.
Colonies served as sources of raw materials (e.g., timber, tobacco, indigo) for the mother country and as captive markets for manufactured goods.
Aimed to create a favorable balance of trade, where exports exceeded imports for the mother country.
Navigation Acts (1651-17__):
A series of parliamentary laws enacted to enforce mercantilist policies, primarily targeting Dutch competition and ensuring English control over colonial trade.
Key provisions required:
All goods imported to or exported from the colonies must be transported on English (or colonial-built) ships.
Crew on these ships must be at least three-quarters English.
Certain "enumerated goods" (e.g., tobacco, sugar, cotton, indigo) produced in the colonies could only be exported to England or other English colonies.
Goods from non-English countries bound for the colonies had to pass through English ports first, where duties were collected.
These acts were meant to enrich England but often led to smuggling by colonists seeking better prices or easier trade routes.
Boards of Trade and Colonial Administration:
Various English bodies, such as the Lords of Trade (1675) and later the Board of Trade (1696), were established to monitor and regulate colonial affairs.
These boards advised the Crown on colonial appointments, reviewed colonial laws, and sought to enforce trade regulations.
Their effectiveness varied, and colonial assemblies often demonstrated significant local power.
Salutary Neglect (Early 18th Century - 1763):
An unofficial British policy of relaxed enforcement of parliamentary laws, particularly trade laws (Navigation Acts), over the American colonies.
Britain allowed the colonies greater autonomy in exchange for colonial economic loyalty and cooperation in imperial wars.
This period fostered a sense of self-governance and economic independence among the colonists, leading to the development of strong colonial assemblies.
Contributed to the growth of institutions and practices that would later form the basis of American independence.
Colonial Governance Structures:
Each colony typically had a royal governor (appointed by the Crown or proprietor) as the chief executive, with powers including vetoing legislation and commanding the militia.
Colonial assemblies were elected by property-owning colonists and held significant power, especially over taxation and local spending (the "power of the purse"), which they often used to influence governors.
This dual structure
4. Roots of Colonial Representation
Development of Colonial Assemblies:
Building upon the "power of the purse," colonial assemblies gradually asserted greater authority over local affairs, taxation, and spending.
During periods of "Salutary Neglect," these assemblies refined their legislative processes and adapted English parliamentary traditions.
They often saw themselves as miniature parliaments, responsible for representing the interests of local property-owning citizens.
Influence of English Political Thought:
Magna Carta (1215): Provided foundational ideas of limited government and rights, influencing colonial views on due process and rule of law.
Glorious Revolution (1688) & English Bill of Rights (1689): Reinforced parliamentary supremacy over the monarchy and guaranteed certain rights; colonists drew parallels, expecting similar rights and protections for their own assemblies.
Thinkers like John Locke's ideas on natural rights and government by consent of the governed were highly influential, shaping colonial arguments for self-governance.
Concepts of Representation:
Actual Representation: The colonial ideal, where elected representatives directly served the interests of the specific geographic area and constituents who elected them. Representatives were expected to live in their districts.
Virtual Representation: The British parliamentary view, arguing that members of Parliament represented the interests of all British subjects, regardless of whether they had direct elected representatives. Colonists vigorously rejected this concept concerning issues of taxation.
Early Assertions of Rights:
Numerous instances where colonial assemblies challenged royal authority or proprietary governors in defense of perceived colonial rights.
These disputes laid the groundwork for later arguments
5. The Great Wars for Empire
End of Salutary Neglect & New Imperial Policy (Post-1763):
Following the French and Indian War (Seven Years' War, 1754-1763), Britain emerged victorious but deeply in debt.
This global conflict, part of The Great Wars for Empire, fundamentally shifted British policy from "Salutary Neglect" to one of direct control and taxation over the American colonies to help replenish the war-torn treasury and manage new territorial acquisitions.
Proclamation of 1763:
Issued by the British Crown immediately after the French and Indian War.
Prohibited colonial settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains, aiming to prevent conflicts with Native American tribes and reduce defense costs.
Widely resented by colonists, who viewed it as an infringement on their westward expansion and a betrayal after their contributions to the war effort.
New Taxes and Regulations:
Sugar Act (1764): Imposed duties on foreign sugar and certain luxuries, primarily to raise revenue for the Crown and curb smuggling; a departure from previous taxes aimed at regulating trade.
Stamp Act (1765): Required a government-issued stamp on all legal documents, newspapers, pamphlets, and playing cards, marking the first direct tax on the colonists by Parliament. This sparked widespread protest and the cry of "no taxation without representation."
Quartering Act (1765): Required colonists to provide housing and supplies for British soldiers, further inflaming anti-British sentiment.
Colonial Resistance:
Stamp Act Congress (1765): Representatives from nine colonies met, affirming their loyalty to the king but asserting that only their own elected assemblies had the right to tax them.
Sons of Liberty: Secret societies formed to resist British policies, often through violent actions like destroying tax collectors' homes and intimidating officials.
Boycotts: Colonial merchants and consumers organized widespread boycotts of British goods, significantly impacting British trade and demonstrating colonial economic power.
Repeal of the Stamp Act & Declaratory Act (1766): Parliament repealed the Stamp Act due to colonial pressure and boycotts but simultaneously passed the Declaratory Act, asserting its full power and authority to make laws binding the colonies "in all cases whatsoever."