Education in Britain

The history of (school) education

Regional diversity: Scotland, England & Wales, and Northern Ireland each have their own system.
- Northern Ireland: selective, 40% attend grammar schools, religion as dividing factor.
- England & Wales, and Northern Ireland: each have a national curriculum.
- Scotland: has no national curriculum; Welsh parliament now responsible for education.
- The focus of this session will be on England.
Local Education Authorities (LEAs) have local responsibility in education; recent changes have been made to this.
Historical evolution and 'anachronisms' are present in the system.
Changes are frequently made by different governments.
Success under debate: a 1999 report indicated that \frac{1}{4} of adults are in the lowest literacy and numeracy levels, unable to use an index or calculate change.
English public schools are highly popular with rich foreigners.

Education and class

Private/independent vs. state school sectors have a close connection to the British political elite (e.g., Boris Johnson).
'Old school ties' are important.
Private education is usually better due to smaller classes and better equipment, which was also important during the Corona crisis.

Education and Brexit

Population growth and austerity policies of the Conservative government led to shortages in education (e.g., many families did not get a place in their school of choice).
This was a significant issue in Brexit debates.
There is a very strong dependence of school policy on party politics.
Many different types of schools co-exist.

Important Steps in the History of Schools / Education

Middle Ages: education was linked to the church/monasteries.
1534ff.: The Reformation and the Dissolution of the Monasteries under Henry VIII resulted in a great loss for education and learning.
Endowed schools (late Middle Ages/early modern period) were established by rich individuals.
- These were so-called public schools/grammar schools, frequented by sons of the rich (e.g., Eton (1440), Harrow (1572), Westminster (1540)).
Early modern period: secular schools and church schools (Church of England) were founded.
Charity schools and dame schools existed.
The Industrial Revolution led to a decline in literacy.
Sunday Schools provided religious instruction with some literacy.
Class and ‘ideology’ played a significant role.
19th century: The Church of England gradually lost its monopoly.
1833: The first government grants for education were introduced.
1870: The Forster Act/Education Act established and financed an elementary school system.
By the 1880s, free and compulsory primary education was available in most of Britain (ages 5 to 10).
1902: The Balfour Act established secondary and technical schools.
1918: The Fisher Act raised the school leaving age to 14.
1944: The Butler Act made state schooling free and compulsory up to age 15, divided into three stages:
- Primary schools (5-12 years).
- Secondary schools (12-15 years).
- Post-school training.
- Local Education Authorities (LEAs) were introduced to decide on the system.
1944 Butler Act: most areas divided secondary schools into grammar and secondary modern schools.
- Grammar schools were often old foundations, catering to more academic children.
- Secondary modern schools were more practical.
- The eleven-plus exam determined placement.
- The ideal was free education for all classes as part of the British Welfare state.
Problems:
- Grammar schools were better equipped and more esteemed.
- Class and selection issues persisted.
Since the 1960s, Labour governments replaced the system with 'comprehensive schools' (co-educational).
- However, local differences were important, and grammar schools continued to exist in some places.

The School System Today

State school sector: 94% of children.
- Free and compulsory from 5 to 16/18.
Tri-part division in the state school sector:
- Pre-school/nursery education (3-4).
- Primary schools (5-11).
- Secondary schools (11-16/18).
- 87% are comprehensive (non-selective), but note recent changes.
- The rest are mainly grammar schools.
Comprehensive schools divide pupils into 'sets' (A, B, C) according to ability and interest in subjects ('streaming' or 'setting').

Independent School Sector

Independent school sector (fee-paying): great variety.
Tri-part division in the independent school sector:
- Pre-preparatory school (4-8).
- Preparatory school/prep school (8-13).
- Public schools (13-18) or other independent schools (11/13-18).

The Public Schools

Privately funded schools, including famous schools like Eton, Harrow, Rugby, Winchester.
Mainly old endowed schools (endowed “for the public”).
(Formerly) schools of elite.
Boarding schools, formerly single-sex.
Traditionally, concentration on classics.
Public-school ethos:
- Prefect system.
- Division into houses → loyalty.
- Sports, games ethics, and empire-building.
- Still: importance of networking and tradition.

School Organisation

School day: ca. 8 or 9 a.m. to ca. 3 or 4 p.m., lunch break with school lunch.
School year: 3 terms (autumn, spring, summer).
- 2-week holidays at Christmas and Easter; 1-week at half-term; 6-week holiday in the summer.
School-leaving age: required to stay in education or training till the age of 18.
School ‘forms’:
- 4 years old – Reception year
- 5 years – Year 1
- 6 years – Year 2
- …
- 15 years – Year 11
- Sixth form (upper and lower): 16 to 18
Creation of a national curriculum to standardize knowledge and keep it up to date (Education Act of 1988).
5 Key Stages in Curriculum with SAT-test (ages 7, 11, 14, 16 and 18 [18: non-compulsory]).
- Certain knowledge expected in a variety of subjects, including English, history, mathematics, ‘citizenship’ and ‘personal, social and health education’.

Exams

Exams (set by independent examining boards).
GCSE (General Certificate of Secondary Education).
- Usually 6 or 7 subjects, including English, maths, and a foreign language.
- Grades: A to G; age: 16.
- Welsh: compulsory in Wales.
AS-levels (Advanced Subsidiary): after the first year of sixth form.
- Usually 4 subjects plus key skills test; age: 17.
A2-levels: usually 3 subjects; age: 18.

Schools and Religion

Historically close connection between church and education.
Today: state schools are non-denominational, religious education is non-denominational and compulsory.
Importance of ‛faith schools’, ca. \frac{1}{3} of schools (mainly Anglican, but also Catholic, Muslim and Jewish).

New Types of School

Under Labour (Blair Government):
- Establishment of City Technology Colleges, etc. to enhance education in science and technology.
- Support of voluntary schools controlled by faiths.
- Problems of ‘failed’ schools (turned into academies).
The Tory-Liberal Government:
- More academies (Academies Act of 2010).
- Out of LEA control, controlled by Ofsted.
- Community-based.
- Money and sponsoring.
- Increasing selectivity?
- Greater freedom from the National Curriculum.
- Reasons: cheaper? Neo-liberal ideology? School as community? Greater say for parents?
- Establishes new division: maintained vs non-maintained schools (the former: still under LEA control).

Recent Debates

Class and education; education and austerity.
Education and migration; education and diversity.
T-Levels (from 2022-3).
Brexit and Language Schools

Specialities of the English School System

Often single-sex schools.
School assemblies.
School uniforms.
Importance of schools’ ratings; schools compete for pupils.

Higher Education

Ca. 50 % of young adults in the UK attend higher education.
89 universities and 60 institutes of higher education in the UK (e.g. Royal Academy of Dramatic Arts; Royal College of Music).
Open University.

The Universities in the UK

4 types:
- Oxford and Cambridge as traditional English universities (founded in 13th c.).
- Traditional Scottish universities: St Andrews, Glasgow, Aberdeen, and Edinburgh (founded in 15th and 16th c.).
- ‘redbrick’/civic universities (e.g., Leeds, Liverpool, and Manchester) created between 1850 and 1930; originally technical bias, catered for local people.
- Campus universities (founded between WWII and 1960s) e.g. York, Sussex and East Anglia, often rural areas tend to emphasize ‘new subjects’.
- ‘new universities’ (former polytechnics, given university status) e.g. Oxford Brookes University.
High competition: acceptance depends on A-level results and interviews.
Degrees:
- Bachelor (Bachelor of Arts, BA, or Bachelor of Science, BSc); usually three years.
  - Marks: first; 2:1 (upper second); 2:2 (lower second), third, pass Honours
- Master (at least one year).
- PhD (at least three years).
Finances (fees, grants and costs of living).
- Living: halls of residences vs. student houses.

Facts about Oxford University

Oldest university in the English-speaking world.
Structure: 38 colleges, oldest colleges: University College, Balliol College, and Merton College (13th c.).
Over 20,000 students.
98.2 per cent of those taking A-levels who enter the University achieve grades of 3 As or better!
On average: 5 applications for each place
Main library: Bodleian, more than 100 libraries overall.
Famous Oxonians: include 28 British Prime Ministers; at least 30 international leaders; 55 Nobel Prize winners; at least 6 kings and 12 saints.

Brexit and the Universities

End of Erasmus programmes.
British universities and European funding?
Working in the UK.
In short: what will happen to the international standing of British universities?

Other Important Terms

Russell Group.
Monitorial System / Bell-Lancaster method

Summary

Importance of class and education.
Evolution of the system.