A History of Instructional Design and Technology: Part II: A History of Instructional Design

A History of Instructional Design and Technology

Introduction

  • Article Title: "A History of Instructional Design and Technology: Part II: A History of Instructional Design".

  • Author: Robert A. Reiser.

  • Overview: This is the second part of a two-part article discussing the history of instructional design and technology in the United States.

    • Part I focused on instructional media, published in volume 49, number 1.

    • Part II centers on the historical development of instructional design, beginning with World War II efforts and extending to the 1970s.

Definition of Instructional Design and Technology

  • Definition given in Part I:

    • "The field of instructional design and technology encompasses the analysis of learning and performance problems, and the design, development, implementation, evaluation, and management of instructional and noninstructional processes and resources intended to improve learning and performance in a variety of settings, particularly educational institutions and the workplace."

  • Key Features of the Definition:

    1. Categories of Activities:

    • Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, Evaluation, Management.

    1. Research and Theory:

    • Acknowledgment of research and theory as essential components of the field.

    1. Influence of Performance Technology:

    • Recognition of how performance technology has shaped practices.

  • Core Practices:

    • Use of media for instructional purposes.

    • Employment of systematic instructional design procedures.

Historical Overview of Instructional Design

  • The emergence of systematic instructional design procedures known variously as:

    • Systems approach.

    • Instructional systems design (ISD).

    • Instructional development.

  • Instructional design models typically include:

    • Analysis of instructional problems.

    • Design and development of instructional procedures and materials.

    • Implementation and evaluation of these solutions.

The Origins of Instructional Design

  • Origin traced to World War II:

    • Psychologists and educators were recruited to develop training materials for military service. Key figures included:

    • Robert Gagné

    • Leslie Briggs

    • John Flanagan

    • Their contributions were based on research in instructional principles and human behavior.

  • Example: To lower flight training failure rates, psychologists tested candidates’ skills and redirected those who scored poorly to alternative programs, significantly improving completion rates.

  • Post-WWII: Influential psychologists continued working on instructional problems, leading to the establishment of organizations like the American Institutes for Research and the development of analysis methodologies such as task analysis by Robert B. Miller.

Programmed Instruction Movement

  • Timeframe: Mid-1950s to mid-1960s.

  • Initiated by B.F. Skinner with his 1954 article "The Science of Learning and the Art of Teaching."

    • Emphasized:

    • Instruction should be stepwise.

    • Require learner responses for reinforcement.

    • Provide immediate feedback.

    • Allow self-pacing.

  • Formative evaluation: Employed trial and revision techniques to improve instructional materials.

  • Influential text:

    • Robert Mager's Preparing Objectives for Programmed Instruction (1962), promoting clarity in instructional objectives comprised of behavior descriptions, conditions for performance, and evaluation standards.

  • Historical Pioneers of Behavioral Objectives:

    • Early 1900s educators: Bobbitt, Charters, Burk.

    • Ralph Tyler's influence emphasized objectives defined by expected learner behaviors.

    • Impact of Bloom's Taxonomy (1956) classified educational goals and learning types.

Criterion-Referenced Testing Movement

  • Emerged in the early 1960s:

    • Contrast with norm-referenced testing (which compares learner performance).

    • Aimed to assess individual performance against set criteria.

    • Robert Glaser popularized the term and application of criterion-referenced measures.

Key Contributions by Robert Gagné

  • Publication: The Conditions of Learning (1965).

    • Identified five domains of learning outcomes: verbal information, intellectual skills, psychomotor skills, attitudes, cognitive strategies.

    • Described nine essential events of instruction for achieving learning outcomes.

    • Proposed learning hierarchies and their implications for instructional design.

The Influence of Sputnik

  • Year: 1957.

  • The Soviet Union's launch of Sputnik prompted significant U.S. investments to enhance math and science education.

  • Concerns arose over the ineffective instructional materials developed without evaluating learner feedback.

    • Introduction of formative evaluation methods by Michael Scriven (1967).

    • Scriven highlighted the necessity of testing materials in draft stages for efficacy before final versions.

Early Instructional Design Models (1960s)

  • Initial developmental phase during the 1960s when various models emerged, including:

    • Gagné (1962b), Glaser (1962, 1965), Silvern (1964).

    • Transition from just theory and procedures into systematic instructional design methodologies.

Growth of Instructional Design in the 1970s

  • Proliferation: More than 40 instructional design models emerged by 1979.

  • Interest levels increased across sectors:

    • Military, academia, business, and internationally (e.g., South Korea, Liberia).

  • Creation of graduate programs in instructional design initiated.

  • Periodical focus: The Journal of Instructional Development documented developments in the field.

Developments in the 1980s

  • Continued interest across various sectors including business, military, and international applications.

  • Limited impact in public school education, with some curriculum development utilizing basic instructional design.

  • A trend emerged around cognitive psychology applications in instructional design, yet with limited actual impact.

  • Growth of microcomputers generated a shift towards computer-based instruction.

    • Development of new instructional design models to utilize computability.

  • Rise of the performance technology movement emphasizing broader analyses of performance issues.

Changes in the 1990s

  • Performance technology movement led to a wider scope of instructional design activities, requiring deeper analysis of performance issues beyond lack of training.

  • Constructivism gained traction, promoting collaboration, problem solving, and learner ownership in the learning process.

  • Advances in electronic performance support systems transforming instructional design focuses.

  • Techniques such as rapid prototyping introduced, emphasizing quick iterations and feedback loops in design processes.

  • The internet's rise necessitated a reevaluation of distance learning approaches, requiring well-designed online courses catered to effective learning.

  • Growing interest in knowledge management, emphasizing the collection and dissemination of expertise within organizations.

    • This evolution suggests instructional designers may also need to manage organizational knowledge effectively.

Conclusion

  • The article highlights the intertwined histories of instructional design and media, outlining how professionals in the field utilize lessons learned to influence future developments.

  • Robert A. Reiser is a professor at Florida State University's Instructional Systems program and emphasizes the importance of comprehensive instructional design in educational technology.

  • References are provided for further exploration of contributions to the field and historical context.