Principles of Excavation and Archaeological Methods

Principles of Excavation

  • Survey, Site Identification, and Excavation

Key Themes in Archaeology

  • Identification of Remains: Archaeology focuses on surviving remains of past societies.

  • Methods Used:

    • Documentary sources

    • Salvage (rescue archaeology)

    • Survey techniques:

    • Lidar, aerial photography

    • Archival research

    • Field walking

    • Ground-penetrating radar (GPR)

    • Coring

    • Ideal to combine various survey methods.

  • Excavation Process:

    • A tricky and destructive process.

    • Once excavated, data is often lost to revisit.

    • Importance of thorough documentation.

  • Historical Context:

    • Significant archaeology began with Pompeii and Herculaneum after Vesuvius in 79 AD.

    • Transitioned from treasure hunting to a disciplined study aiding the development of fields like art history and geology.

Key Terms in Archaeology

  • Survey: A systematic exploration of a landscape for archaeological sites.

  • Trench: An excavation feature to study stratigraphy.

  • Stratigraphy: Layers of soil that represent different time periods.

  • Context: The position of an artifact within its layer of soil.

  • Harris Matrix: A method for visualizing stratigraphy sequences.

  • Terminus post quem (TPQ): The date after which an artifact or layer must have been deposited.

  • Relative and Absolute Dating:

    • Relative dating uses artifacts; absolute dating uses techniques like radiocarbon dating.

Stages of Archaeological Fieldwork

  1. Formulate research strategy.

  2. Collect and record evidence.

  3. Process, analyze, and interpret evidence.

  4. Publish results.

Assessing Sites Without Excavation

  • Techniques:

    • Surface Mapping: Create topographic and planimetric maps.

    • Subsurface Detection:

    • Probing (augers, periscopes)

    • Seismic/acoustic methods (echo sounding, sonar)

    • Magnetometry and electrical resistivity tomography.

Excavation Characteristics

  • Destructive, costly, and slow; must be selective.

  • Yields detailed stratigraphic data, cannot be repeated.

  • Relationship to Surveying:

    • Survey = broad data; Excavation = deep data on specific areas.

Laws of Stratigraphy

  • Law of Superposition: Upper strata are younger than lower strata.

  • Law of Original Horizontality: Layers of sediment are originally deposited horizontally.

  • Law of Original Continuity: Layers of sediment continue horizontally until they thin out or encounter a barrier.

  • Law of Stratigraphic Succession: A unit of stratification takes its place in sequence considering physical contact with surrounding units.

Dating Techniques

  • Absolute Dating Methods:

    • Radiocarbon dating (C¹⁴): Effective for organic remains (up to ~50,000 years).

    • Dendrochronology: Dates wooden structures based on tree growth rings.

    • Archaeomagnetic & thermoluminescence dating: For fired materials.

  • Relative Dating Methods:

    • Use diagnostic artifacts to establish a T.P.Q.

    • Seriation: Ordering artifacts based on style changes over time.

Case Study: Oplontis and Herculaneum

  • Archaeological significance of the sites due to Vesuvius eruption.

  • Continued exploration enhances understanding of Roman life and architecture.

Practical Considerations in Archaeology

  • Ethical implications: Consider the destruction of historical contexts.

  • Interdisciplinary cooperation: Various fields contribute to a comprehensive understanding of the archaeological record.