AP Government Vocabulary

Natural rights - The rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, which government cannot limit or take away

Social contract - People giving their government the right to rule over them to ensure a functioning society, as long as this government does not interfere with the natural rights of their citizens

Popular sovereignty - The idea that the governments power and their right to rule is given to them by the people

Republicanism - System of government where the the governments authority comes indirectly from the people through their elected representatives

Inalienable rights - Rights the government cannot obstruct in any way

Liberty - Political, social, and economic freedoms

Participatory democracy - A theory that widespread political participation is essential for democratic government

Civil society group - Independent associations outside the governments control

Pluralist theory - Theory of democracy that emphasizes the role of groups in the process of policymaking

Elitist theory - Theory of democracy that the elites have a disproportionate amount on influence in the policymaking process

Political institutions - The structure of governments including the executive, judiciary, and legislative branches

Constitutional republic - A democratic system with elected representatives under the Supreme Law of the Constitution

Constitution - A document that sets out the fundamental principles of governance and establishes institutions of government.

Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union - A governing document that created a union of thirteen sovereign states, where the states themselves, not the national government, was, supreme

Unicameral - One house legislation

Shays Rebellion - A popular uprising against the government of Massachussetts, born out of economic problems under Articles

Constitutional Convention - A meeting attended by state delegates in 1787 to amend the Articles

Writ of habeas corpus - the right of people detained by the government to known the charges levied against them

Bills of attainder - The legislature declaring someone guilty without a trial

Ex post facto laws - Laws punishing people for acts that were not crimes at the time of commitment

Virginia Plan - A plan of government calling for a three-branch government with a bicameral legislature, where more populous states would have more representation in Congress

New Jersey Plan - A plan of government that provided for a unicameral legislature with equal votes for each state

Grand Committee - A committee at Constitutional Convention that worked out the compromise on representation

Great (Connecticut) Compromise - An agreement for a plan of government that drew upon both Virginia and New Jersey plans, settling issues of state representation by calling for a bicameral legislature with the House approportioned proportionately and a Senate apportioned equally

Bicameral - A two-house legislature

Three-fifths Compromise - An agreement reached by delegates at the Constitutional Convention that a slave would count as three-fifths of a person in calculating states representation

Compromise of Importation - Congress could not restrict the slave trade until 1808

Separation of powers - A design of government that distributes powers across institutions in order to avoid making one branch too powerful on its own

Federalism - The sharing of powers between the national government and the states

Legislative branch - The institution responsible for making laws

Expressed / Enumerated powers - Powers and authorities specifically granted to a branch of the government in the Constitution

Necessary and proper or elastic clause - Language in Article 1, Section 8, granting Congress the powers necessary to carry out its enumerated powers

Implied powers - Authority of the federal government that goes beyond the explicitly expressed powers

Executive branch - The institution responsible for carrying out laws passed by the legislative branch

Judicial branch - The institution responsible for hearing and deciding cases through the federal courts

Supremacy clause - Constitutional provision declaring that the Constitution and all national laws and treaties are the supreme law of the land

Amendment - The process by which changes may be made in the Constitution

Federalists - Supporters of the proposed Constitution, who favored a strong national government

Antifederalists - Opponents of the proposed Constitution, who favored stronger state governments

Federalist Papers - A series of eighty five essays written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, John Jay published between 1787 and 1788 to lay out the theory behind the Constitution

Federalist No. 51 - An essay where Madison argues that the separation of powers and federalism will prevent tyranny

Factions - Group of self-interested people who use the government to get what they want, and according to Madison, trample the rights of others in the process

Federalist No. 10 - An essay where Madison argues the dangers of factions can be mitigated by a large republic and republican government

Brutus No. 1 - An Antifederalist paper arguing that the country was too large to be governed as a republic and the Constitution gave the national government too much power

Federalism - A system that divides power between the central and state governments

Unitary systems - A system of one central government exercising authority over all subnational governments such as states

Confederal systems - A system where the subnational governments have most of the power

Federal systems - A system where central government and subnational governments share power

Commerce clause - Grants Congress the authority to regulate interstate business and commercial activity

Reserved powers - Powers not given to the national government, retained by the states and the people

Concurrent powers - Powers granted to both states and the federal government in the Constitution

Full faith and credit clause - Requires states to recognize the public acts, records, and civil court proceedings from other states

Extradition - The requirement that officials in one state return a defendant to another state where a crime was committed

Privileges and immunities clause - Constitutional clause that prevents states from discriminating against people from out of states

Dual federalism - A form of American federalism in which the states and the national government operate independently in their own areas of public policy

Selective incorporation - The process through which the Supreme Court applies fundamental rights in the Bill of Rights to the states on a case-by-case basis

Cooperative federalism - A form of American federalism in which the states and the national governments work together to shape public policy

Grants-in-aid - Federal money provided to states to implement public policy objectives

Fiscal federalism - The federal governments use of grants-in-aids to influence policies in the states

Categorical grants - Grants-in-aid provided to states with specific provisions on their use

Unfunded mandate - Federal requirements that states must follow without being provided funding

Block grant - A type of grant-in-aid that gives state officials more authority in the disbursement of federal funds

Revenue sharing - When the federal government apportions tax money to the states with no strings attached

Devolution - Returning more authority to state or local governments

Political culture - The dominant set of beliefs, customs, traditions, and values that define the relationship between citizens and government

Individualism - The belief that individuals should be responsible for themselves and the decisions they make

Laissez-faire or free enterprise - An economic system in which government intrudes as little as possible in the economic transactions among citizens and businesses

Rule of law- The principle that no one, including public officials, is above the law

Political socialization - The experiences and factors that shape an individuals political values, attitudes, and behaviors

Political ideology - A set of beliefs about the desired goals and outcomes of a process of government

Right - Something guaranteed, that the government cannot take away

Privilege - Something a person may obtain or receive, but that the government can take away

Party ideology - A partys philosophy about the proper role of government and its set of positions on major issues

Party identification - An individuals attachment to a political party

Conservatism - An ideology favoring more control of social behavior, fewer regulations on businesses, and less government interference in the economy

Liberalism - An ideology favoring less government control over social behavior and greater regulation of businesses and the economy

Libertarianism - An ideology favoring very little government regulation and intervention beyond protecting private property and individual liberty

Laissez-faire economy - Economic policy in which governments intrude as little as possible in the economic transactions between citizens and businesses

Command-and-control economy - Economic policy in which government dictates much of a nations economic activity, including the amount of production and price for goods

Mixed economy - Economic policy in which many economic decisions are left to individuals and businesses, with the government regulating economic activity

Gross domestic product (GDP) - The total value of goods and services produced by an economy

Economic recession - A period of decline in economic activity, typically defined by two consecutive quarters of negative GDP growth

Unemployment rate - The percentage of people actively looking for work who cannot find jobs

Inflation - The rise in the prices of goods and services

Consumer Price Index (CPI) - The cost of a fixed basket of goods and services over time, used to measure the cost of living

Fiscal policy - Government use of taxes and spending to attempt to lower unemployment, support economic growth, and stabilize the economy

Federal Reserve System - A board of governors, Federal Reserve banks, and member banks responsible for monetary policy

Monetary policy - A set of economic policy tools designed to regulate the amount of money in the economy

Medicare - A federal program that provides health insurance to seniors and the disabled

Medicaid - A federal program that provides healthcare for the poor

News media - A broad term that includes newspapers, magazines, radio, television, internet sources, blog, and social media posting that cover important events

Social media - Forms of electronic communication that enable users to create and share content or to participate in social networking

Agenda setting - The medias ability to highlight certain issues and bring them to the attention of the public

Mass media - Sources of information designed to reach a wide audience, including newspapers, radio, television, and internet outlets

Wire service - An organization that gathers and reports on news and then sells the stories to other outlets

Investigative journalism - An approach to newsgathering in which reporters dig into stories, often looking of wrongdoing

Broadcast media - Outlets for news and other content including radio and television that brings stories directly into peoples homes

Media consolidation - The concentration of ownership of the media into fewer corporations

Partisan bias - The sharing of political news coverage in support of a particular party or ideology

Horse-race journalism - Coverage of political campaigns that focus more on the drama of the campaign than on policy issues

Political participation - The different ways in which an individual takes action to shape the laws and policies of a government

Political action committee (PAC) - An organization that raises money to elect and defeat candidates and may donate money directly to a candidates campaign, subject to limits

Linkage institutions - Channels that connect individuals with government, including elections, political parties, interest groups, and the media

Social movement - The joining of individuals seeking social or political change with the goal of placing issues on the policy agenda

Franchise / suffrage - The right to vote

Poll tax - A payment required by a state or federal government before a citizen is allowed to vote

Voter turnout - The number of eligible voters who participate in an election as a percentage in an election as a percentage of the total number of eligible voters

Demographic characteristics - Measurable characteristics of a percentage of a population, such as economic status, education, age, race or ethnicity, and gender

Socioeconomic status (SES) - A measure of an individuals wealth, income, occupation, and educational attainment

Political efficacy - A persons belief that they can make effective political change

Political mobilization - Efforts by political parties to encourage their members to votes

Registration requirements - the set of rules that govern who can vote and how, when, and where they vote

Absentee ballots - Voting completed and submitted by a voter before the day of an election without going to the polls

Rational choice voting - Voting based on what a citizen believes is in their best interest

Retrospective voting - Voting based on an assessment of an incumbents past performance

Prospective voting - Casting a ballot for a candidate who promises to enact policies favored by the voter

Party-line voting - Voting for candidates who belong only to one political party for all of the offices on the ballots

Electoral college - A constitutionally required process for selecting the president through states of electors chosen in each state, who are pledged to vote for a nominee in the presidential election

Winner-take-all system - A system of elections in which the candidate who wins the plurality of votes within a state receives all of that states votes in the Electoral college

Battleground state - A state where the polls show a close contest between the Republican and Democratic candidate in a presidential election

Swing state - A state where levels of support for the parties are similar and elections swing back and forth between Democrats and Republicans

Get out the vote (GOTV) - Efforts to mobilize supporters

Super PAC - An organization that may spend an unlimited amount of money on a political campaign, as long as the spending is not coordinated with a campaign

Political party - An organized group of party leaders, officeholders, and voters who collaborate to elect candidates to political office

Straight-ticket voting - Voting for all of the candidates on the ballot from one particular party

Split-ticket voting - Voting for candidates from different parties in the same election

Party platform - A set of positions and policy objectives that members of a political party agree on

Recruitment - The process through which political parties identify potential candidates

Party coalition - Group of voters who support a party over time

Realignment - When the groups of people who support a political party shift their allegiance to a different political party

Critical election - A major national election that signals a change in the balance of power between the major parties

Party era - Time period when one party wins most national elections

Era of divided government - A trend since 1969, in which one party controls one or both houses of Congress and the president is from the opposing party

Nomination - The formal process through which parties choose their candidates for political office

Delegate - A person who acts as the voters representative at a convention to select the party nominee

Primary election - An election in which a states voters choose delegates who support a presidential candidate for nomination or an election by a plurality vote to select a partys nominee for a seat in Congress

Open primary - A primary election in which all eligible voters can vote, regardless of party affiliation

Closed primary - A primary election in which only those who have registered as a member of a specific party can vote

Caucus - A process through which a states eligible voters meet to select delegates to represent their preferences in the nomination process

Superdelegate - Usually a party leader or activist who is not pledged to a candidate based on the outcome of the states primary caucus

Front-loading - A decision by a state to push its primary or caucus to a date as early in the election season as possible to gain more influence in the presidential nomination process

National convention - A meeting where delegates officially select their partys nominee for the presidency

Candidate-centered campaign - A trend in which candiddates develop their own strategies and raise money with less influence from the party elite

Two-party system - A system in which two political parties dominate politicis, winning almost all elections

Proportional representation system - An election system for a legislature in which citizens vote for parties rather than individuals and parties are represented in the legislature according to the percentage of the vote they receive

Single-member plurality system - An election system for choosing members of the legislature where the winner is the candidate who receives the most votes, even if they did not receive a majority

Third party - A minor political party in competition with the two major parties

Policy agenda - The set of issues to which government officials, voters, and the public are paying attention

Collective action - Political action that occurs when individuals contribute their energy, time, or money to a larger group goal

Collective good - Also called a public good, a public benefit that individuals can enjoy or profit from even if they do not help achieve it

Free riders - Individuals who enjoy collective goods and benefits from the actions of an interest group without joining

Selective benefits - Benefits available only to those who join the group

Economic interest groups - Groups advocating on behalf of the financial interests of their members

Public interest groups - Groups that act on behalf of the financial interests of their members

Single-issue groups - Associations focusing on one specific area of public policy, often a moral issue about which they are unwilling to compromise

Government interest groups - Organizations acting on behalf of local, state, or foreign governments

Lobbying - Interacting with government officials in order to advance a groups public policy goals

Revolving door - The movement of individuals between positions in government and lobbying positions

Amicus curiae brief - A brief filed by someone who is not a party to a case in an attempt to persuade the Court to agree with the arguments set forth in the brief

Iron triangle - The coordinate and mutually beneficial activities of the bureaucracy, Congress, and interest groups to achieve shared policy goals

Issue network - The webs of influence between interest groups, policymakers, and policy advocates

Grassroots lobbying - Mobilizing interest group members to pressure their representatives by contacting them directly through phone calls, email, and social media

Protest - A public demonstration designed to call attention to the need for change

Civil disobedience - Intentionally breaking a law to call attention to an injustice

Pork barrel spending - Legislation that directs specific funds to projects within districts or states

Logrolling - Trading of votes on legislation by members of Congress to get their earmarks passed into legislation

Oversight - Efforts by Congress to ensure that the executive branch agencies, bureaus, and cabinet departments, as well as their officials, are acting legally and in accordance with congressional goals

Constituency - A body of voters in a given area who elect a representative or senator

Apportionment - The process of determining the number of representatives for each state using census data

Redistricting - States redrawing of boundaries of electoral districts following each census

Gerrymandering - The intentional use of redistricting to benefit a specific interest or groups of voters

Partisan gerrymandering - Drawing district boundaries into strange shapes to benefit a political party

Majority-minority district - A district in which voters of a minority ethnicity constitute an electoral majority within that electoral district

Malapportionment - The uneven distribution of the population among legislative districts

Incumbency - Being already in office as opposed to running for the first time

Incumbency advantage - Institutional advantages held by those already in office, who are trying to fend off challengers in an election

Speaker of the House - The leader of the House of Representatives, chosen by an election of its members

Political action committee (PAC) - An organization that raises money for candidates and campaigns

House majority leader - The person who is the second in command of the House of Representatives

Whip - A member of Congress, chosen by their party members, whose job it is to ensure party unity and discipline

Minority leader - The head of the party with the second-highest number of seats in Congress, chosen by the party members

Senate majority leader - The person who has the most power in the Senate and is the head of the party with the most seats

Committee chair - Leader of a congressional committee who has authority over the committees agenda

Discharge petition - A motion filed by a member of Congress to move a bill out of committee and onto the floor of the House for a vote

House Rules Committee - A powerful committee that determines when a bill will be subject to debate and vote on the House floor, how long the debate will last, and whether amendments will be allowed on the floor

Committees of the Whole - Consists of all members of the House and meets in the House chamber but is governed by different rules, making it easier to consider complex and controversial legislation

Hold - A delay placed on legislation by a senator who objects to a bill

Unanimous consent agreement - An agreement in the Senate that sets the terms for consideration of a bill

Filibuster - A tactic through which an individual senator may use the right of unlimited debate to delay a motion or postpone action on a piece of legislation

Cloture - A procedure through which senators can end a filibuster and proceed to action, provided 60 senators agree to it

Veto - The power of a president to reject a bill passed by Congress, sending it back to the originating branch with objections

Office of Management and Budget (OMB) - The executive branch office that assists the president in setting national spending priorities

Entitlement program - A program that provides benefits for those who qualify under the law, regardless of income

Mandatory spending - Spending required by existing laws that are locked in the budget

Discretionary spending - Spending for programs and policies at the discretion of Congress and the president

Budget surplus - The amount of money remaining when the government takes in more than it spends

Budget deficit - The annual shortfall when a government takes in less money than it spends

National debt - The amount of money owed by the federal government

Delegate role - The idea that the main duty of a member of Congress is to carry out the wishes of their constituents

Trustee role - The idea that members of Congress should act as a trustee, making decisions based on their own knowledge and judgement

Politico role - Representation where members of Congress balance their choices with the interests of their constituents and parties in making decisions

Bipartisanship - Agreement between the parties to work together in Congress to pass legislation

Gridlock - A slowdown or halt in the ability of Congress to legislate and overcome decisions, especially those based on partisanship

Divided government - Control of the presidency and one or both chambers of Congress split between the two major parties

Lame duck period - Period at the end of a presidential term where Congress may block presidential initiatives and nominees

Treaty - An agreement with a foreign government negotiated by the president and requiring a two-thirds vote in the Senate to ratify

State of the Union Address - An annual speech from the president to Congress updating the branch on the state of national affairs

Pocket veto - An informal veto when the president chooses not to sign a bill within ten days, during a time when Congress had adjourned at the end of a session

Presidential pardon - Presidential authority to release individuals convicted of a crime and set aside punishment for a crime

Executive privilege - A right claimed by presidents to keep certain conversations, records, and transcripts from outside scrutiny, especially that of Congress

Executive agreement - An agreement between a president and another nation that does not have the same durability of a treaty, but does not require Senate ratification

Signing statement - Written comments issued by presidents while signing a bill into law that usually consists of political statements or reasons for signing the bill but that may also be the presidents interpretation of the law itself

Executive order - Policy directives issued by presidents that do not require congressional approval

War Powers Resolution - A law passed over President Nixons veto that restricts the power of the president to maintain troops in combat for more than sixty days without congressional approval

Impeachment - The process of removing a president from office, with articles of impeachment issued by a majority vote in the House of Representatives, followed by a trial in the Senate, with a two-thirds vote necessary to convict and remove

Executive Office of the President (EOP) - A collection of offices within the White House organization designed mainly to provide information to the presidnet

Bargaining and persuasion - An informal tool used by the president to persuade members of Congress to support their policy initiatives

Bully pulpit - Presidential appeals to the public to pressure other branches of government to support their own policies

Going public - A tactic in which presidents reach out directly to the American people with the hope that the people will, in turn, put pressure on their representatives and senators to press for a presidents policy goals

Pendleton Act - An act of Congress that created the first United States Civil Service Commission to draw up and enforce rules on hiring, promotion, and tenure of office within the civil service (also known as the Civil Service Reform Act of 1883)

Federal civil service - The merit-based bureaucracy, excluding the armed forces and political appointments

Merit system - A system of hiring and promoting based on competitive testing results, education, and other qualifications, rather than politics and personal connections

Implementation - The role of the bureaucracy in putting into action the laws that Congress has passed

Bureaucratic discretion - The power to decide how a law is implemented and to decide what Congress meant when it passed the law

Regulation - The process through which the federal bureaucracy makes rules that have the force of law, to carry out the laws passed by Congress

Bureaucratic adjudication - When the federal bureaucracy settles disputes between parties that arise over the implementation of federal laws or determines which individuals or groups covered under a regulation or program

Federal judiciary - The branch of the federal government that interprets the laws of the nation

Supreme Court - The highest level of the federal judiciary, which was established in Article III of the Constitution and serves as the highest court in the nation

Original jurisdiction - The authority of a court to hear a case first, which includes the finding of facts in the case

Appellate jurisdiction - The authority of a court to hear and review decisions made by lower courts in that system

Federalist No. 78 - Argument by Alexander Hamilton that the federal judiciary would be unlikely to infringe upon rights and liberties but would serve as a check on the other two branches

Judicial review - The authority of the Supreme Court to strike down a law or executive action if it conflicts with the Constitution

Criminal law - A category of law covering actions that harm the community

Civil law - A category of law covering cases involving private rights and relationships between individuals and groups

Federal district courts - The lowest level of the federal judiciary, these courts usually having original jurisdiction in cases that begin at the federal level

Federal courts of appeals - The middle level of the federal judiciary, these courts hearing and reviewing appeals from the federal district courts

Precedent - A judicial decision that guides future courts in handling similar cases

Stare decisis - The practice of letting a previous legal decision stand

Majority opinion - A binding Supreme Court opinion, which serves as precedent for future cases

Concurring opinion - An opinion that agrees with the majority decision, offering different or additional reasoning that does not serve as precedent

Dissenting opinion - An opinion that disagrees with the majority opinion and does not serve as precedent

Judicial restraint - A philosophy of constitutional interpretation that justices should be cautious in overturning laws

Judicial activism - A philosophy of constitutional interpretation that justices should wield the power of judicial review, sometimes creating bold new policies

Civil liberties - Fundamental rights and freedoms protected from infringement by the government

Bill of Rights - A list of fundamental rights and freedoms that individuals possess.The first ten amendments to the USA Constitution are referred to as the Bill of Rights

Due process clause - The clause in the 14th Amendment that restricts state governments from denying citizens their life, liberty, or property without legal safeguards

Selective incorporation - The piecemeal process through which the Supreme Court has affirmed that almost all of the protections in the Bill of Rights also apply to state governments

Establishment clause - 1st Amendment protection against the government requiring citizens to join or support a religion

Free exercise clause - 1st Amendment protection of the rights of individuals to exercise and express their religious beliefs

Freedom of expression - A fundamental right affirmed in the 1st Amendment to speak, publish, and protest

Clear and present danger test - Legal standard that speech posing an immediate and serious threat to national security is not protected by the 1st Amendment

Prior restraint - The suppression of material prior to publication on the grounds that it might endanger national security

Symbolic speech - Protected expression in the form of images, signs, and other symbols

Libel - An untrue written statement that injures the reputation of a person

Slander - An untrue spoken expression that injures the reputation of a person

Obscenity and pornography - Words, images, or videos that depict sexual activity in an offensive manner and that lack any artistic merit

Procedural due process - A judicial standard requiring that fairness be applied to all individuals easily

Warrant - A document issued by a judge authorizing a search

Probable cause - Reasonable belief that a crime has been committed or that there is evidence of criminal activity

Exclusionary rule - A rule that evidence obtained without a warrant is inadmissible in court

Grand jury - A group of citizens who, based on the evidence presented to them, decide whether or not a person should be indicted on criminal charges and subsequently tried in court

Double jeopardy - Protects and individual acquitted of a crime from being charged with the same crime again in the same jurisdiction

Miranda rights - The right to remain silent and to have an attorney present during questioning; these rights must be given by police to individuals in custody suspected of criminal activity

Bail - An amount of money posted as a security to allow the charged individual to be freed while awaiting trial

Civil rights - Protections for individuals from discrimination based on race, national origin, religion, sex, and other characteristics ensuring equal treatment under the law

Equal protection clause - Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment that has been used to protect the civil rights on Americans from discrimination based on race, national origin, religion, gender, and other characteristics

Separate but equal - The doctrine that racial segregation was constitutional so long as the facilities were equal

Legal segregation - The separation by law of individuals based on their race

De jure segregation - The separation of individuals based on their characteristics, such as race, by law

De facto segregation - The separation of individuals based on characteristics that arises not by law but because of other factors, such as residential housing patterns

Affirmative action - A policy designed to address the consequences of previous discrimination by providing special consideration to individuals based upon their characteristics, such as race and gender

Social movement - Large groups of citizens organizing for political change

Civil disobedience - The intentional refusal to obey a law to call attention to its injustice

Civil Rights Act of 1964 - Legislation outlawing racial segregation in schools and public places and authorizing the attorney general to sue individual school districts that failed to desegregate

Voting Rights Act of 1965 - Legislation outlawing literacy tests and authorizing the Justice Department to send federal officers to register voters in uncooperative cities, counties, and states

Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 - Legislation prohibiting sex discrimination in schools receiving federal aid, which had the impact of increasing female participation in sports programs

1st Amendment - Protects the right to free speech, assembly, press, petitions, religious exercise and holdings

2nd Amendment - Protects the right to bear arms

3rd Amendment - Protects from having to house soldiers

4th Amendment - Protects from unreasonable searches and arrests

5th Amendment - Protects from double jeopardy and bearing witness against yourself

6th Amendment - The right to a fair and speedy trial

7th Amendment - The right to a jury trial in civil matters of at least $20

8th Amendment - Protects from excessive bail and cruel, unusual punishments

9th Amendment - Rights not listed in the Constitution are for the people

10th Amendment - All rights not explicitly given to the federal government in the Constitution are reserved for the states and the people

11th Amendment - An individual cannot sue a state in a federal court

12th Amendment - Separate ballots for president and vice president

13th Amendment - The abolition of slavery, Reconstruction Amendment

14th Amendment - Defines citizenship as those born or naturalized in the U.S., Reconstruction Amendment

15th Amendment - Protects from voting discriminations and barriers based on race, Reconstruction Amendment

16th Amendment - Established income tax

17th Amendment - Popular, direct election of senators

18th Amendment - Prohibition

19th Amendment - Grants suffrage for women

20th Amendment - President takes office on January 20th instead of March 4th

21st Amendment - Repealing of prohibition

22nd Amendment - Presidents are limited to two terms

23rd Amendment - Washington D.C. residents can vote for the president

24th Amendment - Bans poll taxes

25th Amendment - Lays down presidential succession in case of presidential incapacitation or death

26th Amendment - Lowers the voting age to 18

27th Amendment - Congress cannot accept a pay raise until the next term

Marbury v. Madison (1803) - SCOTUS case that established judicial review over federal laws

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) - SCOTUS case that established the Constitution and federal laws as superior to state laws

Schenck v. United States (1919) - SCOTUS case ruling that speech creating a clear and present danger is not protected by the 1st Amendment

Brown v. Board of Education, Topeka Kansas (1954) & B v. BOE (2) - SCOTUS cases ruling that segregation violates the equal protection clause

Baker v. Carr (1962) - SCOTUS case that opened the door to equal protections challenges to redistricting and the development on

Engel v. Vitale (1962) - SCOTUS case that ruled school-sponsored prayers violated the establishment clause of the 1st Amendment

Gideon v. Wainwright (1963) - SCOTUS case that guaranteed the right to a lawyer in all cases

Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District (1969) - SCOTUS case guaranteeing public school students the right to symbolic protests

New York Times v. United States (1971) - SCOTUS case that bolstered freedom of the press, establishing a heavy presumption against prior restraint, even in cases involving national security

Wisconsin v. Yoder (1972) - SCOTUS case ruling that forcing Amish students to attend school past 8th grade violates the free exercise clause

Shaw v. Reno (1993) - SCOTUS case that determined majority-minority districts, created under the Voting Rights Act of 1965, may be constitutionally challenged by voters if race is the only factor used in creating the district

United States v. Lopez (1995) - SCOTUS case that ruled Congress may not use the commerce clause to make possession of a gun in a school zone a federal crime

Citizens United v. Federal Election Commissions (FEC) (2010) - SCOTUS case that ruled political spending by corporations, associations, and labor unions is a form of protected speech under the 1st Amendment

McDonald v. Chicago (2010) - SCOTUS case that established the 2nd Amendment right to keep and bear arms for self-defense is applicable to the states