AP Government Vocabulary
Natural rights - The rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, which government cannot limit or take away
Social contract - People giving their government the right to rule over them to ensure a functioning society, as long as this government does not interfere with the natural rights of their citizens
Popular sovereignty - The idea that the governments power and their right to rule is given to them by the people
Republicanism - System of government where the the governments authority comes indirectly from the people through their elected representatives
Inalienable rights - Rights the government cannot obstruct in any way
Liberty - Political, social, and economic freedoms
Participatory democracy - A theory that widespread political participation is essential for democratic government
Civil society group - Independent associations outside the governments control
Pluralist theory - Theory of democracy that emphasizes the role of groups in the process of policymaking
Elitist theory - Theory of democracy that the elites have a disproportionate amount on influence in the policymaking process
Political institutions - The structure of governments including the executive, judiciary, and legislative branches
Constitutional republic - A democratic system with elected representatives under the Supreme Law of the Constitution
Constitution - A document that sets out the fundamental principles of governance and establishes institutions of government.
Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union - A governing document that created a union of thirteen sovereign states, where the states themselves, not the national government, was, supreme
Unicameral - One house legislation
Shays Rebellion - A popular uprising against the government of Massachussetts, born out of economic problems under Articles
Constitutional Convention - A meeting attended by state delegates in 1787 to amend the Articles
Writ of habeas corpus - the right of people detained by the government to known the charges levied against them
Bills of attainder - The legislature declaring someone guilty without a trial
Ex post facto laws - Laws punishing people for acts that were not crimes at the time of commitment
Virginia Plan - A plan of government calling for a three-branch government with a bicameral legislature, where more populous states would have more representation in Congress
New Jersey Plan - A plan of government that provided for a unicameral legislature with equal votes for each state
Grand Committee - A committee at Constitutional Convention that worked out the compromise on representation
Great (Connecticut) Compromise - An agreement for a plan of government that drew upon both Virginia and New Jersey plans, settling issues of state representation by calling for a bicameral legislature with the House approportioned proportionately and a Senate apportioned equally
Bicameral - A two-house legislature
Three-fifths Compromise - An agreement reached by delegates at the Constitutional Convention that a slave would count as three-fifths of a person in calculating states representation
Compromise of Importation - Congress could not restrict the slave trade until 1808
Separation of powers - A design of government that distributes powers across institutions in order to avoid making one branch too powerful on its own
Federalism - The sharing of powers between the national government and the states
Legislative branch - The institution responsible for making laws
Expressed / Enumerated powers - Powers and authorities specifically granted to a branch of the government in the Constitution
Necessary and proper or elastic clause - Language in Article 1, Section 8, granting Congress the powers necessary to carry out its enumerated powers
Implied powers - Authority of the federal government that goes beyond the explicitly expressed powers
Executive branch - The institution responsible for carrying out laws passed by the legislative branch
Judicial branch - The institution responsible for hearing and deciding cases through the federal courts
Supremacy clause - Constitutional provision declaring that the Constitution and all national laws and treaties are the supreme law of the land
Amendment - The process by which changes may be made in the Constitution
Federalists - Supporters of the proposed Constitution, who favored a strong national government
Antifederalists - Opponents of the proposed Constitution, who favored stronger state governments
Federalist Papers - A series of eighty five essays written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, John Jay published between 1787 and 1788 to lay out the theory behind the Constitution
Federalist No. 51 - An essay where Madison argues that the separation of powers and federalism will prevent tyranny
Factions - Group of self-interested people who use the government to get what they want, and according to Madison, trample the rights of others in the process
Federalist No. 10 - An essay where Madison argues the dangers of factions can be mitigated by a large republic and republican government
Brutus No. 1 - An Antifederalist paper arguing that the country was too large to be governed as a republic and the Constitution gave the national government too much power
Federalism - A system that divides power between the central and state governments
Unitary systems - A system of one central government exercising authority over all subnational governments such as states
Confederal systems - A system where the subnational governments have most of the power
Federal systems - A system where central government and subnational governments share power
Commerce clause - Grants Congress the authority to regulate interstate business and commercial activity
Reserved powers - Powers not given to the national government, retained by the states and the people
Concurrent powers - Powers granted to both states and the federal government in the Constitution
Full faith and credit clause - Requires states to recognize the public acts, records, and civil court proceedings from other states
Extradition - The requirement that officials in one state return a defendant to another state where a crime was committed
Privileges and immunities clause - Constitutional clause that prevents states from discriminating against people from out of states
Dual federalism - A form of American federalism in which the states and the national government operate independently in their own areas of public policy
Selective incorporation - The process through which the Supreme Court applies fundamental rights in the Bill of Rights to the states on a case-by-case basis
Cooperative federalism - A form of American federalism in which the states and the national governments work together to shape public policy
Grants-in-aid - Federal money provided to states to implement public policy objectives
Fiscal federalism - The federal governments use of grants-in-aids to influence policies in the states
Categorical grants - Grants-in-aid provided to states with specific provisions on their use
Unfunded mandate - Federal requirements that states must follow without being provided funding
Block grant - A type of grant-in-aid that gives state officials more authority in the disbursement of federal funds
Revenue sharing - When the federal government apportions tax money to the states with no strings attached
Devolution - Returning more authority to state or local governments
Political culture - The dominant set of beliefs, customs, traditions, and values that define the relationship between citizens and government
Individualism - The belief that individuals should be responsible for themselves and the decisions they make
Laissez-faire or free enterprise - An economic system in which government intrudes as little as possible in the economic transactions among citizens and businesses
Rule of law- The principle that no one, including public officials, is above the law
Political socialization - The experiences and factors that shape an individuals political values, attitudes, and behaviors
Political ideology - A set of beliefs about the desired goals and outcomes of a process of government
Right - Something guaranteed, that the government cannot take away
Privilege - Something a person may obtain or receive, but that the government can take away
Party ideology - A partys philosophy about the proper role of government and its set of positions on major issues
Party identification - An individuals attachment to a political party
Conservatism - An ideology favoring more control of social behavior, fewer regulations on businesses, and less government interference in the economy
Liberalism - An ideology favoring less government control over social behavior and greater regulation of businesses and the economy
Libertarianism - An ideology favoring very little government regulation and intervention beyond protecting private property and individual liberty
Laissez-faire economy - Economic policy in which governments intrude as little as possible in the economic transactions between citizens and businesses
Command-and-control economy - Economic policy in which government dictates much of a nations economic activity, including the amount of production and price for goods
Mixed economy - Economic policy in which many economic decisions are left to individuals and businesses, with the government regulating economic activity
Gross domestic product (GDP) - The total value of goods and services produced by an economy
Economic recession - A period of decline in economic activity, typically defined by two consecutive quarters of negative GDP growth
Unemployment rate - The percentage of people actively looking for work who cannot find jobs
Inflation - The rise in the prices of goods and services
Consumer Price Index (CPI) - The cost of a fixed basket of goods and services over time, used to measure the cost of living
Fiscal policy - Government use of taxes and spending to attempt to lower unemployment, support economic growth, and stabilize the economy
Federal Reserve System - A board of governors, Federal Reserve banks, and member banks responsible for monetary policy
Monetary policy - A set of economic policy tools designed to regulate the amount of money in the economy
Medicare - A federal program that provides health insurance to seniors and the disabled
Medicaid - A federal program that provides healthcare for the poor
News media - A broad term that includes newspapers, magazines, radio, television, internet sources, blog, and social media posting that cover important events
Social media - Forms of electronic communication that enable users to create and share content or to participate in social networking
Agenda setting - The medias ability to highlight certain issues and bring them to the attention of the public
Mass media - Sources of information designed to reach a wide audience, including newspapers, radio, television, and internet outlets
Wire service - An organization that gathers and reports on news and then sells the stories to other outlets
Investigative journalism - An approach to newsgathering in which reporters dig into stories, often looking of wrongdoing
Broadcast media - Outlets for news and other content including radio and television that brings stories directly into peoples homes
Media consolidation - The concentration of ownership of the media into fewer corporations
Partisan bias - The sharing of political news coverage in support of a particular party or ideology
Horse-race journalism - Coverage of political campaigns that focus more on the drama of the campaign than on policy issues
Political participation - The different ways in which an individual takes action to shape the laws and policies of a government
Political action committee (PAC) - An organization that raises money to elect and defeat candidates and may donate money directly to a candidates campaign, subject to limits
Linkage institutions - Channels that connect individuals with government, including elections, political parties, interest groups, and the media
Social movement - The joining of individuals seeking social or political change with the goal of placing issues on the policy agenda
Franchise / suffrage - The right to vote
Poll tax - A payment required by a state or federal government before a citizen is allowed to vote
Voter turnout - The number of eligible voters who participate in an election as a percentage in an election as a percentage of the total number of eligible voters
Demographic characteristics - Measurable characteristics of a percentage of a population, such as economic status, education, age, race or ethnicity, and gender
Socioeconomic status (SES) - A measure of an individuals wealth, income, occupation, and educational attainment
Political efficacy - A persons belief that they can make effective political change
Political mobilization - Efforts by political parties to encourage their members to votes
Registration requirements - the set of rules that govern who can vote and how, when, and where they vote
Absentee ballots - Voting completed and submitted by a voter before the day of an election without going to the polls
Rational choice voting - Voting based on what a citizen believes is in their best interest
Retrospective voting - Voting based on an assessment of an incumbents past performance
Prospective voting - Casting a ballot for a candidate who promises to enact policies favored by the voter
Party-line voting - Voting for candidates who belong only to one political party for all of the offices on the ballots
Electoral college - A constitutionally required process for selecting the president through states of electors chosen in each state, who are pledged to vote for a nominee in the presidential election
Winner-take-all system - A system of elections in which the candidate who wins the plurality of votes within a state receives all of that states votes in the Electoral college
Battleground state - A state where the polls show a close contest between the Republican and Democratic candidate in a presidential election
Swing state - A state where levels of support for the parties are similar and elections swing back and forth between Democrats and Republicans
Get out the vote (GOTV) - Efforts to mobilize supporters
Super PAC - An organization that may spend an unlimited amount of money on a political campaign, as long as the spending is not coordinated with a campaign
Political party - An organized group of party leaders, officeholders, and voters who collaborate to elect candidates to political office
Straight-ticket voting - Voting for all of the candidates on the ballot from one particular party
Split-ticket voting - Voting for candidates from different parties in the same election
Party platform - A set of positions and policy objectives that members of a political party agree on
Recruitment - The process through which political parties identify potential candidates
Party coalition - Group of voters who support a party over time
Realignment - When the groups of people who support a political party shift their allegiance to a different political party
Critical election - A major national election that signals a change in the balance of power between the major parties
Party era - Time period when one party wins most national elections
Era of divided government - A trend since 1969, in which one party controls one or both houses of Congress and the president is from the opposing party
Nomination - The formal process through which parties choose their candidates for political office
Delegate - A person who acts as the voters representative at a convention to select the party nominee
Primary election - An election in which a states voters choose delegates who support a presidential candidate for nomination or an election by a plurality vote to select a partys nominee for a seat in Congress
Open primary - A primary election in which all eligible voters can vote, regardless of party affiliation
Closed primary - A primary election in which only those who have registered as a member of a specific party can vote
Caucus - A process through which a states eligible voters meet to select delegates to represent their preferences in the nomination process
Superdelegate - Usually a party leader or activist who is not pledged to a candidate based on the outcome of the states primary caucus
Front-loading - A decision by a state to push its primary or caucus to a date as early in the election season as possible to gain more influence in the presidential nomination process
National convention - A meeting where delegates officially select their partys nominee for the presidency
Candidate-centered campaign - A trend in which candiddates develop their own strategies and raise money with less influence from the party elite
Two-party system - A system in which two political parties dominate politicis, winning almost all elections
Proportional representation system - An election system for a legislature in which citizens vote for parties rather than individuals and parties are represented in the legislature according to the percentage of the vote they receive
Single-member plurality system - An election system for choosing members of the legislature where the winner is the candidate who receives the most votes, even if they did not receive a majority
Third party - A minor political party in competition with the two major parties
Policy agenda - The set of issues to which government officials, voters, and the public are paying attention
Collective action - Political action that occurs when individuals contribute their energy, time, or money to a larger group goal
Collective good - Also called a public good, a public benefit that individuals can enjoy or profit from even if they do not help achieve it
Free riders - Individuals who enjoy collective goods and benefits from the actions of an interest group without joining
Selective benefits - Benefits available only to those who join the group
Economic interest groups - Groups advocating on behalf of the financial interests of their members
Public interest groups - Groups that act on behalf of the financial interests of their members
Single-issue groups - Associations focusing on one specific area of public policy, often a moral issue about which they are unwilling to compromise
Government interest groups - Organizations acting on behalf of local, state, or foreign governments
Lobbying - Interacting with government officials in order to advance a groups public policy goals
Revolving door - The movement of individuals between positions in government and lobbying positions
Amicus curiae brief - A brief filed by someone who is not a party to a case in an attempt to persuade the Court to agree with the arguments set forth in the brief
Iron triangle - The coordinate and mutually beneficial activities of the bureaucracy, Congress, and interest groups to achieve shared policy goals
Issue network - The webs of influence between interest groups, policymakers, and policy advocates
Grassroots lobbying - Mobilizing interest group members to pressure their representatives by contacting them directly through phone calls, email, and social media
Protest - A public demonstration designed to call attention to the need for change
Civil disobedience - Intentionally breaking a law to call attention to an injustice
Pork barrel spending - Legislation that directs specific funds to projects within districts or states
Logrolling - Trading of votes on legislation by members of Congress to get their earmarks passed into legislation
Oversight - Efforts by Congress to ensure that the executive branch agencies, bureaus, and cabinet departments, as well as their officials, are acting legally and in accordance with congressional goals
Constituency - A body of voters in a given area who elect a representative or senator
Apportionment - The process of determining the number of representatives for each state using census data
Redistricting - States redrawing of boundaries of electoral districts following each census
Gerrymandering - The intentional use of redistricting to benefit a specific interest or groups of voters
Partisan gerrymandering - Drawing district boundaries into strange shapes to benefit a political party
Majority-minority district - A district in which voters of a minority ethnicity constitute an electoral majority within that electoral district
Malapportionment - The uneven distribution of the population among legislative districts
Incumbency - Being already in office as opposed to running for the first time
Incumbency advantage - Institutional advantages held by those already in office, who are trying to fend off challengers in an election
Speaker of the House - The leader of the House of Representatives, chosen by an election of its members
Political action committee (PAC) - An organization that raises money for candidates and campaigns
House majority leader - The person who is the second in command of the House of Representatives
Whip - A member of Congress, chosen by their party members, whose job it is to ensure party unity and discipline
Minority leader - The head of the party with the second-highest number of seats in Congress, chosen by the party members
Senate majority leader - The person who has the most power in the Senate and is the head of the party with the most seats
Committee chair - Leader of a congressional committee who has authority over the committees agenda
Discharge petition - A motion filed by a member of Congress to move a bill out of committee and onto the floor of the House for a vote
House Rules Committee - A powerful committee that determines when a bill will be subject to debate and vote on the House floor, how long the debate will last, and whether amendments will be allowed on the floor
Committees of the Whole - Consists of all members of the House and meets in the House chamber but is governed by different rules, making it easier to consider complex and controversial legislation
Hold - A delay placed on legislation by a senator who objects to a bill
Unanimous consent agreement - An agreement in the Senate that sets the terms for consideration of a bill
Filibuster - A tactic through which an individual senator may use the right of unlimited debate to delay a motion or postpone action on a piece of legislation
Cloture - A procedure through which senators can end a filibuster and proceed to action, provided 60 senators agree to it
Veto - The power of a president to reject a bill passed by Congress, sending it back to the originating branch with objections
Office of Management and Budget (OMB) - The executive branch office that assists the president in setting national spending priorities
Entitlement program - A program that provides benefits for those who qualify under the law, regardless of income
Mandatory spending - Spending required by existing laws that are locked in the budget
Discretionary spending - Spending for programs and policies at the discretion of Congress and the president
Budget surplus - The amount of money remaining when the government takes in more than it spends
Budget deficit - The annual shortfall when a government takes in less money than it spends
National debt - The amount of money owed by the federal government
Delegate role - The idea that the main duty of a member of Congress is to carry out the wishes of their constituents
Trustee role - The idea that members of Congress should act as a trustee, making decisions based on their own knowledge and judgement
Politico role - Representation where members of Congress balance their choices with the interests of their constituents and parties in making decisions
Bipartisanship - Agreement between the parties to work together in Congress to pass legislation
Gridlock - A slowdown or halt in the ability of Congress to legislate and overcome decisions, especially those based on partisanship
Divided government - Control of the presidency and one or both chambers of Congress split between the two major parties
Lame duck period - Period at the end of a presidential term where Congress may block presidential initiatives and nominees
Treaty - An agreement with a foreign government negotiated by the president and requiring a two-thirds vote in the Senate to ratify
State of the Union Address - An annual speech from the president to Congress updating the branch on the state of national affairs
Pocket veto - An informal veto when the president chooses not to sign a bill within ten days, during a time when Congress had adjourned at the end of a session
Presidential pardon - Presidential authority to release individuals convicted of a crime and set aside punishment for a crime
Executive privilege - A right claimed by presidents to keep certain conversations, records, and transcripts from outside scrutiny, especially that of Congress
Executive agreement - An agreement between a president and another nation that does not have the same durability of a treaty, but does not require Senate ratification
Signing statement - Written comments issued by presidents while signing a bill into law that usually consists of political statements or reasons for signing the bill but that may also be the presidents interpretation of the law itself
Executive order - Policy directives issued by presidents that do not require congressional approval
War Powers Resolution - A law passed over President Nixons veto that restricts the power of the president to maintain troops in combat for more than sixty days without congressional approval
Impeachment - The process of removing a president from office, with articles of impeachment issued by a majority vote in the House of Representatives, followed by a trial in the Senate, with a two-thirds vote necessary to convict and remove
Executive Office of the President (EOP) - A collection of offices within the White House organization designed mainly to provide information to the presidnet
Bargaining and persuasion - An informal tool used by the president to persuade members of Congress to support their policy initiatives
Bully pulpit - Presidential appeals to the public to pressure other branches of government to support their own policies
Going public - A tactic in which presidents reach out directly to the American people with the hope that the people will, in turn, put pressure on their representatives and senators to press for a presidents policy goals
Pendleton Act - An act of Congress that created the first United States Civil Service Commission to draw up and enforce rules on hiring, promotion, and tenure of office within the civil service (also known as the Civil Service Reform Act of 1883)
Federal civil service - The merit-based bureaucracy, excluding the armed forces and political appointments
Merit system - A system of hiring and promoting based on competitive testing results, education, and other qualifications, rather than politics and personal connections
Implementation - The role of the bureaucracy in putting into action the laws that Congress has passed
Bureaucratic discretion - The power to decide how a law is implemented and to decide what Congress meant when it passed the law
Regulation - The process through which the federal bureaucracy makes rules that have the force of law, to carry out the laws passed by Congress
Bureaucratic adjudication - When the federal bureaucracy settles disputes between parties that arise over the implementation of federal laws or determines which individuals or groups covered under a regulation or program
Federal judiciary - The branch of the federal government that interprets the laws of the nation
Supreme Court - The highest level of the federal judiciary, which was established in Article III of the Constitution and serves as the highest court in the nation
Original jurisdiction - The authority of a court to hear a case first, which includes the finding of facts in the case
Appellate jurisdiction - The authority of a court to hear and review decisions made by lower courts in that system
Federalist No. 78 - Argument by Alexander Hamilton that the federal judiciary would be unlikely to infringe upon rights and liberties but would serve as a check on the other two branches
Judicial review - The authority of the Supreme Court to strike down a law or executive action if it conflicts with the Constitution
Criminal law - A category of law covering actions that harm the community
Civil law - A category of law covering cases involving private rights and relationships between individuals and groups
Federal district courts - The lowest level of the federal judiciary, these courts usually having original jurisdiction in cases that begin at the federal level
Federal courts of appeals - The middle level of the federal judiciary, these courts hearing and reviewing appeals from the federal district courts
Precedent - A judicial decision that guides future courts in handling similar cases
Stare decisis - The practice of letting a previous legal decision stand
Majority opinion - A binding Supreme Court opinion, which serves as precedent for future cases
Concurring opinion - An opinion that agrees with the majority decision, offering different or additional reasoning that does not serve as precedent
Dissenting opinion - An opinion that disagrees with the majority opinion and does not serve as precedent
Judicial restraint - A philosophy of constitutional interpretation that justices should be cautious in overturning laws
Judicial activism - A philosophy of constitutional interpretation that justices should wield the power of judicial review, sometimes creating bold new policies
Civil liberties - Fundamental rights and freedoms protected from infringement by the government
Bill of Rights - A list of fundamental rights and freedoms that individuals possess.The first ten amendments to the USA Constitution are referred to as the Bill of Rights
Due process clause - The clause in the 14th Amendment that restricts state governments from denying citizens their life, liberty, or property without legal safeguards
Selective incorporation - The piecemeal process through which the Supreme Court has affirmed that almost all of the protections in the Bill of Rights also apply to state governments
Establishment clause - 1st Amendment protection against the government requiring citizens to join or support a religion
Free exercise clause - 1st Amendment protection of the rights of individuals to exercise and express their religious beliefs
Freedom of expression - A fundamental right affirmed in the 1st Amendment to speak, publish, and protest
Clear and present danger test - Legal standard that speech posing an immediate and serious threat to national security is not protected by the 1st Amendment
Prior restraint - The suppression of material prior to publication on the grounds that it might endanger national security
Symbolic speech - Protected expression in the form of images, signs, and other symbols
Libel - An untrue written statement that injures the reputation of a person
Slander - An untrue spoken expression that injures the reputation of a person
Obscenity and pornography - Words, images, or videos that depict sexual activity in an offensive manner and that lack any artistic merit
Procedural due process - A judicial standard requiring that fairness be applied to all individuals easily
Warrant - A document issued by a judge authorizing a search
Probable cause - Reasonable belief that a crime has been committed or that there is evidence of criminal activity
Exclusionary rule - A rule that evidence obtained without a warrant is inadmissible in court
Grand jury - A group of citizens who, based on the evidence presented to them, decide whether or not a person should be indicted on criminal charges and subsequently tried in court
Double jeopardy - Protects and individual acquitted of a crime from being charged with the same crime again in the same jurisdiction
Miranda rights - The right to remain silent and to have an attorney present during questioning; these rights must be given by police to individuals in custody suspected of criminal activity
Bail - An amount of money posted as a security to allow the charged individual to be freed while awaiting trial
Civil rights - Protections for individuals from discrimination based on race, national origin, religion, sex, and other characteristics ensuring equal treatment under the law
Equal protection clause - Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment that has been used to protect the civil rights on Americans from discrimination based on race, national origin, religion, gender, and other characteristics
Separate but equal - The doctrine that racial segregation was constitutional so long as the facilities were equal
Legal segregation - The separation by law of individuals based on their race
De jure segregation - The separation of individuals based on their characteristics, such as race, by law
De facto segregation - The separation of individuals based on characteristics that arises not by law but because of other factors, such as residential housing patterns
Affirmative action - A policy designed to address the consequences of previous discrimination by providing special consideration to individuals based upon their characteristics, such as race and gender
Social movement - Large groups of citizens organizing for political change
Civil disobedience - The intentional refusal to obey a law to call attention to its injustice
Civil Rights Act of 1964 - Legislation outlawing racial segregation in schools and public places and authorizing the attorney general to sue individual school districts that failed to desegregate
Voting Rights Act of 1965 - Legislation outlawing literacy tests and authorizing the Justice Department to send federal officers to register voters in uncooperative cities, counties, and states
Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 - Legislation prohibiting sex discrimination in schools receiving federal aid, which had the impact of increasing female participation in sports programs
1st Amendment - Protects the right to free speech, assembly, press, petitions, religious exercise and holdings
2nd Amendment - Protects the right to bear arms
3rd Amendment - Protects from having to house soldiers
4th Amendment - Protects from unreasonable searches and arrests
5th Amendment - Protects from double jeopardy and bearing witness against yourself
6th Amendment - The right to a fair and speedy trial
7th Amendment - The right to a jury trial in civil matters of at least $20
8th Amendment - Protects from excessive bail and cruel, unusual punishments
9th Amendment - Rights not listed in the Constitution are for the people
10th Amendment - All rights not explicitly given to the federal government in the Constitution are reserved for the states and the people
11th Amendment - An individual cannot sue a state in a federal court
12th Amendment - Separate ballots for president and vice president
13th Amendment - The abolition of slavery, Reconstruction Amendment
14th Amendment - Defines citizenship as those born or naturalized in the U.S., Reconstruction Amendment
15th Amendment - Protects from voting discriminations and barriers based on race, Reconstruction Amendment
16th Amendment - Established income tax
17th Amendment - Popular, direct election of senators
18th Amendment - Prohibition
19th Amendment - Grants suffrage for women
20th Amendment - President takes office on January 20th instead of March 4th
21st Amendment - Repealing of prohibition
22nd Amendment - Presidents are limited to two terms
23rd Amendment - Washington D.C. residents can vote for the president
24th Amendment - Bans poll taxes
25th Amendment - Lays down presidential succession in case of presidential incapacitation or death
26th Amendment - Lowers the voting age to 18
27th Amendment - Congress cannot accept a pay raise until the next term
Marbury v. Madison (1803) - SCOTUS case that established judicial review over federal laws
McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) - SCOTUS case that established the Constitution and federal laws as superior to state laws
Schenck v. United States (1919) - SCOTUS case ruling that speech creating a clear and present danger is not protected by the 1st Amendment
Brown v. Board of Education, Topeka Kansas (1954) & B v. BOE (2) - SCOTUS cases ruling that segregation violates the equal protection clause
Baker v. Carr (1962) - SCOTUS case that opened the door to equal protections challenges to redistricting and the development on
Engel v. Vitale (1962) - SCOTUS case that ruled school-sponsored prayers violated the establishment clause of the 1st Amendment
Gideon v. Wainwright (1963) - SCOTUS case that guaranteed the right to a lawyer in all cases
Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District (1969) - SCOTUS case guaranteeing public school students the right to symbolic protests
New York Times v. United States (1971) - SCOTUS case that bolstered freedom of the press, establishing a heavy presumption against prior restraint, even in cases involving national security
Wisconsin v. Yoder (1972) - SCOTUS case ruling that forcing Amish students to attend school past 8th grade violates the free exercise clause
Shaw v. Reno (1993) - SCOTUS case that determined majority-minority districts, created under the Voting Rights Act of 1965, may be constitutionally challenged by voters if race is the only factor used in creating the district
United States v. Lopez (1995) - SCOTUS case that ruled Congress may not use the commerce clause to make possession of a gun in a school zone a federal crime
Citizens United v. Federal Election Commissions (FEC) (2010) - SCOTUS case that ruled political spending by corporations, associations, and labor unions is a form of protected speech under the 1st Amendment
McDonald v. Chicago (2010) - SCOTUS case that established the 2nd Amendment right to keep and bear arms for self-defense is applicable to the states