Copy of World History Final study guide

Politics

Constantine

• Roman emperor who founded Constantinople

• Support christianity and converted many people

• Moved the capital east for trade and strategy

Justinian

• Emperor of the byzantine empire

• Wanted to restore the glory of the roman empire

• Expanded territory and strengthened the government

Theodora

• Justnians wife and advisor

• Encouraged Justinian to stay during the Nika rebellion

• Influential in politics

Centralized Government

• Emperor had a strong control over the government

• Decisions came from the capital

Autocracy

• Government ruled by one person with absolute power

Justinian Code

• Collection of organization of roman laws

• Made by Justinian

Nika Rebellion

• Riot in Constantinople against Justnian

• Almost overthrew Justnian

• Killed thousands of people

Religion

Iconoclasts

• People who opposed religious imagery

Eastern Orthodox Church

• Main Christian Church of the Byzantine Empire

Patriarch

• Leading Bishop of Constantinople

• Head of Eastern Orthodox Church

Schism of 1054

• Official split between Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches

Cyril and Methodius

• Missionaries who spread Christianity to slavic people

Religious Persecution

• Some groups were punished for different beliefs than the official church teachings

Ideas/Technology

Cyrillic Alphabet

• Writing system developed for Slavic language

Hagia Sophia

• Massive church built by Justnian

Theodosian Walls

• Massive walls surrounding Constantinople

• Protecting the city from invaders

Military

Military Expansion

• Justnian attempted to reclaim former Roman territories

Belisarius

• Justnians most famous general

• Led successful military campaigns to recover territory

Hun Invasions

• Attacks by the Huns and threatened the empire

• Contributed to instability and pressure in Rome

Ottomans

• Turkish empire that captured Constantinople in 1453

Economics

Location in terms of Trade Routes

• Constantinople sat between Europe and Asia.

• Controlled important land and sea trade routes.

Why important?
Made the empire wealthy through trade.

Social Structure

From highest to lowest:

1. Emperor and royal family

2. Nobles and government officials

3. Merchants and artisans

4. Farmers and laborers

Why important?
Shows how Byzantine society was organized.

Preservation of Greek and Roman learning

Hippodrome

• Byzantines copied and preserved ancient texts.

Why important?
Helped keep classical knowledge alive and later influenced Europe.

• Large stadium for chariot races and public events.

Why important?
Center of entertainment and politics; site connected to the Nika Rebellion.

Political: Type and Structure of Government, Leaders, Law System, Documents, Basis for Citizenship

Central Authority

• One strong ruler controls a large area.

Feudalism

• Political system based on land and loyalty.

• King
  ↓
  Lords
  ↓
  Vassals/Knights
  ↓
  Peasants/Serfs

• Purpose: Protection during unstable times.

Decentralized Authority

• Local rulers hold most power.

Connection: Early medieval Europe was mostly decentralized.

Power Vacuum

• Occurs when a strong government collapses and no one replaces it.

• Happened after Rome fell.

Significance: Led to instability and feudalism.

Holy Roman Empire

• Political entity created from Charlemagne's legacy.

• Combined Roman, Christian, and Germanic traditions.

Clovis

• King of the Franks.

• Converted to Christianity.

Importance: Strengthened ties between Germanic rulers and the Church.

Charlemagne

• Frankish king.

• Built a large empire.

• Encouraged learning.

• Crowned Emperor by Pope Leo III in 800 CE.

Importance: United much of Western Europe.

Treaty of Verdun

• Divided Charlemagne's empire among heirs.

Importance: Weakened central authority and encouraged feudalism.

Mutual Obligations

Everyone owed something to someone else.

Examples:

King gives land.

Lord provides protection.

Vassal gives loyalty.

Serf provides labor.

Religion: Deity/Higher Power, Rules of Behavior, Sacred Text, Rituals, Philosophy

Monastery

• Community where monks lived.

• Preserved knowledge and education.

Convent

• Community where nuns lived.

• Preserved knowledge and education.

Secular’

Non-religious.

Example:

• Church matters = religious.

• Government matters = secular.

Tithe

• 10% tax paid to the Church.

Clergy

• Religious officials of the Church.

Church Hierarchy

• Pope
  ↓
  Archbishops
  ↓
  Bishops
  ↓
  Priests

• The Church had its own organized power structure.

St. Benedict

• Created the Benedictine Rule.

• Importance: Set standards for monastic life.

Papal Authority

• Power of the pope over the Church.

• Importance: Popes often influenced kings and emperors.

Leo III

• Pope who crowned Charlemagne emperor.

Importance: Demonstrated the Church's political influence.

Gregory I

• Expanded Church power.

• Sent missionaries.

• Strengthened papal authority.

Lay Investiture Controversy

Ideas/Technology: Literature, Art, Music, Mass Communication, Science/Innovation, Transportation

Chivalry

Code of conduct for knights.

Expected:

• Loyalty

• Courage

• Respect

• Defense of the weak

Reality: Often not followed perfectly.

Military: Use of Warfare, Weapons, Strategy/ Techniques, Use of Environment

Lord

• Owned land.

Fief

• Land granted to a vassal.

Vassal

• Person who received land in exchange for service.

Mutual Obligations

Knight

• Mounted warrior serving a lord.

Franks

• Germanic people who created a powerful kingdom in Western Europe.

Germanic Traditions

• Included loyalty, warrior culture, and tribal customs.

Vikings

• Raiders, traders, and explorers from Scandinavia.

• Importance: Their attacks increased the need for feudal protection.

Saddle

• Improved cavalry warfare.

• Made riding easier.

Stirrups

• Allowed knights to fight while staying balanced.

Battle of Tours

• Helped make knights powerful military forces.

Economic Structure: Trade, Industry, Methods of Exchange, Division of Labor, Markets, Services

Manorialism

• Economic system of the Middle Ages.

• Think:
  Feudalism = politics
  Manorialism = economics

Manor

Self-sufficient estate.

Contained:

• Fields

• Homes

• Workshops

• Church

Serf

• Peasant legally tied to the land.

• Could not freely leave.

Self-sufficient

• Produced most necessities locally.

• Trade was limited.

Mutual Obligations

Barter

• Trading goods without money.

• Common because coin usage declined.

Social Structure: Status of Women, Class Structure, Family Structure, Education, Immigration/Migration, Health and Disease

Class Structure

• King
  ↓
  Nobles/Lords
  ↓
  Knights
  ↓
  Peasants/Serfs

• Movement between classes was rare.

Women’s social status

Generally lower than men's.

However:

• Noble women could manage estates.

• Nuns could gain education and influence through convents.

Political: Type and Structure of Government, Leaders, Legal System, Documents, Basis for Citizenship

Caliph

• Successor to Muhammad as political and religious leader.

• Importance: Combined political and religious authority.

Caliphate

• The territory was ruled by a caliph.

• Think:
  Caliph = leader
  Caliphate = empire

Four Rightly Guided Caliphs

The first four leaders after Muhammad.

Importance:

• Expanded Islamic territory.

• Established early Islamic government.

• Viewed positively by many Muslims.

Umayyad Dynasty

First major Islamic dynasty.

Importance:

• Expanded the empire dramatically.

• Made leadership hereditary.

• Ruled from Damascus.

Abbasid Dynasty

Overthrew the Umayyads.

Importance:

• Established Baghdad as a major center.

• Focused more on culture, learning, and trade.

Power Vacuum

• A leadership gap after Muhammad's death.

• Importance: Created debates over who should lead Islam.

Political Legitimacy

• The belief that a ruler has the right to govern.

Major Question:
Who had the legitimate right to succeed Muhammad?

This issue led directly to the Sunni-Shi'a split.

Hereditary Succession

• Leadership passed through family lines.

• Connection: Important under later dynasties.

Religion: Deity/Higher Power, Rules of Behavior, Sacred Text, Rituals, Philosophy

Allah

• Arabic word for God.

Muslim

• Follower of Islam.

Islam

• Monotheistic religion founded by Muhammad.

Ka’aba

• Sacred shrine in Mecca.

• Most sacred site in Islam.

Qur’an

• Holy book of Islam.

• Contains the teachings believed to be revealed to Muhammad.

Mosque

• Place of worship

Hajj

• Pilgrimage to Mecca.

• One of the Five Pillars.

Hadith

• Records of Muhammad's words and actions.

• Importance: Helps guide Islamic beliefs and practices.

Five Pillars

• Declaration of faith

• Prayer

• Charity

• Fasting during Ramadan

• Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca)

Dhimmi

• Non-Muslims (such as Christians and Jews) living under Muslim rule.

• Allowed to practice their religion but had special legal status.

Shi’a

• Believed leadership should remain within Muhammad's family.

Sunni

• Believed leaders should be chosen by the Muslim community.

• Largest branch of Islam today.

Monotheism

• Belief in one God.

• Connection: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are all monotheistic.

Pilgrimage Center

• Mecca became a major religious and commercial center because of pilgrimage.

Ideas/Technology: Literature, Art, Music, Mass Communication, Science/Innovation, Transportation

Qur’an

Calligraphy

- Decorative artistic writing.

Important because religious traditions often discouraged religious images.

Minarets

• Towers attached to mosques.

• Used for calls to prayer.

House of Wisdom

Major intellectual center in Baghdad.

Importance:

• Translated Greek, Persian, and Indian texts.

• Encouraged scientific research.

• Preserved knowledge that might otherwise have been lost.

Camel

• Critical transportation technology.

• Made long-distance desert trade possible.

Paper

• Adopted from China and spread throughout the Islamic world.

• Importance: Made learning and record keeping easier.

Algebra

• Mathematical field developed and expanded by Muslim scholars.

• Importance: Foundation of modern mathematics.

Trade Institutions

Systems that supported commerce:

• Banking

• Credit

• Contracts

• Financial records

These made trade more efficient.

Military: Use of Warfare, Weapons, Strategy/Techniques, Use of Environment

Ideology of Conquest

• Early Muslim rulers often viewed expansion as spreading Islamic rule and influence.

• Importance: Helped motivate rapid territorial growth.

Civil Wars

• Conflicts within the Islamic community over leadership.

• Importance: Contributed to political divisions and weakened unity.

Economic Structure: Trade, Industry, Methods of Exchange, Division of Labor, Markets, Services

Muslim Trade Network

One of the largest trade networks in the medieval world.

Connected:

• Europe

• Africa

• Middle East

• India

• China

Importance: Spread goods, ideas, religions, and technologies.

Jizya

• Tax paid by many non-Muslims living under Muslim rule.

• Connection: Often associated with dhimmi status.

Sakk

• Early form of a check.

• Importance: Allowed merchants to avoid carrying large amounts of cash.

Trade Route

• Paths used for long-distance commerce.

• The Islamic world sat at the crossroads of major trade routes.

Mecca

• Important religious and trading city.

Oases

• Water sources in deserts.

• Essential for trade caravans.

Social Structure: Status of Women, Class Structure, Family Structure, Education, Immigration/Migration, Health and Disease

Status of Women

Compared with some neighboring societies:

• Women had rights to own property.

• Women could inherit wealth.

• Women could conduct business.

However:

• Society remained largely patriarchal.

• Men generally held greater political authority.

Class Structure

Caliph and ruling elites

↓

Government officials and wealthy merchants

↓

Artisans and traders

↓

Farmers and laborers

Dhimmi

House of Wisdom

Cultural Diffusion

The spread of ideas between cultures.

This is one of the most important themes of the unit.

Examples:

• Paper from China

• Mathematics from India

• Greek philosophy preserved and expanded

• Medical knowledge spread across regions

Medical Advances

Muslim scholars made advances in:

• Hospitals

• Surgery

• Pharmacology

• Medical research

Importance: Influenced later European medicine.

Political: Type and Structure of Government, Leaders, Law System, Documents, Basis for Citizenship

Mansa

• Title meaning king or emperor in Mali.

Mansa Musa

• Most famous ruler of Mali.

• Extremely wealthy.

• Expanded trade and education.

• Made a famous pilgrimage (Hajj) to Mecca.

• Increased awareness of West Africa across the Islamic world.

Sundiata

Founder of the Mali Empire.

Importance:

• Unified the region.

• Established Mali as a major West African kingdom.

• Subject of the Epic of Sundiata.

Ghana

Early West African trading empire.

Importance:

• Controlled gold trade.

• Became wealthy through trade taxes.

Mali

Succeeded Ghana.

Importance:

• Controlled gold-salt trade.

• Reached its peak under Mansa Musa.

Songhai

Succeeded Mali.

Importance:

• Largest West African empire.

• Controlled major trade routes.

Benin

Powerful kingdom in West Africa.

Importance:

• Known for art and trade.

• Produced the Benin Bronzes.

Oba

King of Benin.

Importance:

• Central political authority.

Swahili City-States

Independent trading cities along East Africa.

Importance:

• Connected Africa to the Indian Ocean Trade Network.

• Mixed African, Arab, and Asian influences.

Great Zimbabwe

Large stone-built trading center.

Importance:

• Demonstrates advanced architecture and political organization.

Aksum/Ethiopia

Powerful East African kingdom.

Importance:

• Early Christian kingdom.

• Connected Africa to Red Sea trade.

Religion: Deity/Higher Power, Rules of Behavior, Sacred Text, Rituals, Philosophy

Islam

Spread through trade networks.

Importance:

• Influenced government, education, and trade.

• Especially important in Mali and Songhai.

Traditional African Religions: Orishas and Tricksters

Often focused on:

• Ancestors

• Nature spirits

• Community traditions

• Spiritual beings in some West African traditions.

Characters in stories who use intelligence or deception.

Importance:

• Common in oral traditions.

Ethiopian Eastern Orthodoxy

Christian tradition practiced in Ethiopia.

Importance:

• Shows Africa's religious diversity.

• Ethiopia remained a major Christian kingdom.

Ideas/Technology: Literature, Art, Music, Mass Communication, Science/Innovation, Transportation

Epic of Sundiata

Story of Sundiata's rise to power.

Importance:

• Preserved history and cultural values.

Griots

Professional storytellers and historians.

Importance:

• Preserved history through oral tradition.

Oral Tradition

Passing stories and history by word of mouth.

Importance:

• Major way African societies preserved knowledge.

Swahili

Language combining African and Arabic influences.

Importance:

• Facilitated trade across East Africa.

Timbuktu

One of the most important cities in medieval Africa.

Importance:

• Trade center.

• Educational center.

• Home to libraries and scholars.

Benin Bronzes

Metal sculptures created in Benin.

Importance:

• Demonstrate artistic sophistication.

Iron Technology

Advanced ironworking used for:

• Tools

• Farming

• Weapons

Importance:

• Increased agricultural and military power.

Military: Use of Warfare, Weapons, Strategy/ Techniques, Use of Environment

Portuguese

European traders and explorers who arrived along African coasts.

Importance:

• Changed trade patterns.

• Increased contact between Africa and Europe.

Iron Technology

Economic Structure: Trade, Industry, Methods of Exchange, Division of Labor, Markets, Services

Trans-Saharan Trade Route

Connected North Africa and West Africa.

Main goods:

• Gold

• Salt

Importance: Created wealth for Ghana, Mali, and Songhai

Indian Ocean Trade Network

Connected:

• East Africa

• Middle East

• India

• China

Importance: Spread goods, religions, and ideas.

Monsoon winds

• Seasonal winds used by traders.

• Importance: Made Indian Ocean trade predictable.

Gold-Salt Trade

• Possibly the single most important concept in this unit.

• West Africa had gold.
  North Africa had salt.

• Both were valuable.

• Result: Massive trade profits.

Camel Caravans

• Groups of camels traveling across the Sahara.

• Importance: Made long-distance desert trade possible.

Social Structure: Status of Women, Class Structure, Family Structure, Education, Immigration/Migration, Health and Disease

Bantu Migration

Large movement of Bantu-speaking peoples across Africa.

Importance:

• Spread languages.

• Spread farming.

• Spread iron technology.

This is one of the most important migration events in world history.

Timbuktu

Appears here too because it was an educational center.

Importance:

• Scholars studied religion, law, science, and literature.

Political: Type and Structure of Government, Leaders, Law System, Documents, Basis for Citizenship

Scholar Bureaucrat

• Government officials selected for their education and knowledge.

Civil Service Exam

• Test based largely on Confucian teachings used to select government officials.

Importance:

• Helped create a merit-based government.

• Strengthened centralized authority.

Dynasty

Dynastic Cycle

Sui Dynasty

Reunified China after a period of division.

Importance:

• Built the Grand Canal.

• Set the foundation for later dynasties.

Tang Taizong

One of China's most effective emperors.

Importance:

• Strengthened government.

• Expanded the empire.

Tang Dynasty

Considered a Golden Age of China.

Importance:

• Expanded trade.

• Encouraged cultural achievements.

• Increased political stability.

Song Dynasty

Known for economic growth and innovation.

Importance:

• Development of paper money.

• Expansion of trade.

• Improvements in technology.

Yamato Emperors

• Early rulers who claimed descent from divine ancestors.

Prince Shotoku

• Promoted Buddhism and Chinese ideas.

Prince Shotoku’s Constitution

• Document encouraging obedience, harmony, and Confucian values.

Heian Period

• Period known for cultural achievement and artistic development.

Fujiwara Family

• Powerful noble family that dominated politics during the Heian Period.

Shogun

• Military ruler of Japan.

Feudalism

Kamakura Shogunate

Military government led by a shogun.

Importance:

• Reduced the emperor's political power.

• Increased military control.

Religion: Deity/Higher Power, Rules of Behavior, Sacred Text, Rituals, Philosophy

Buddhism

• Religion that spread from India into China, Korea, and Japan.

Daoism

• Philosophy emphasizing harmony with nature.

Confucianism

• System of ethics focused on social harmony and responsibility.

Confucius

• Chinese philosopher who emphasized order, education, and proper behavior.

Mandate of Heaven

Five Human Relationships

• Ruler-subject
  Parent-child
  Husband-wife
  Older sibling-younger sibling
  Friend-friend

• Importance:
  Maintained order in society.

Religious Toleration

• Many Chinese dynasties allowed multiple belief systems to coexist.

Spread of Islam

• Islam spread into parts of Asia through trade networks.

Shinto

• Traditional religion of Japan.

Kami

• Sacred spirits found in nature and ancestors.

Ideas/Technology: Literature, Art, Music, Mass Communication, Science/Innovation, Transportation

Golden Age

• Period of cultural and economic achievement.

• The Tang Dynasty is often considered a Golden Age.

Movable Type

• Printing technology that allowed books to be produced more efficiently.

Paper Money

• Currency introduced during the Song Dynasty.

Selective Borrowing

Japan adopted some Chinese ideas while keeping its own traditions.

Examples:

• Buddhism

• Writing systems

• Government practices

Kana

• Japanese writing system adapted from Chinese characters.

Lady Murasaki

Author of The Tale of Genji.

Importance:

• Produced one of the world's earliest novels.

• Represents Heian cultural achievements.

Grand Canal

Waterway connecting northern and southern China.

Importance:

• Improved trade.

• Strengthened political unity.

Military: Use of Warfare, Weapons, Strategy/ Techniques, Use of Environment

Daimyo

• Powerful land-owning nobles.

Samurai

• Warrior class of Japan.

Bushido

• Code of conduct emphasizing loyalty, honor, and courage.

Seppuku

• Ritual suicide used to preserve honor.

Mongol invasion of Japan

Attempts by the Mongols to conquer Japan.

Importance:

• Failed due to strong resistance and storms.

• Strengthened the prestige of the samurai.

Economic Structure: Trade, Industry, Methods of Exchange, Division of Labor, Markets, Services

Silk Road

rade routes connecting China with Europe, the Middle East, and other regions.

Importance:

• Spread goods, ideas, technologies, and religions.

Global Trade and the First Global Age

• Large trade networks connected multiple regions of Afro-Eurasia.

Shoen

Private estates in Japan.

Importance:

• Reduced central government control.

• Helped strengthen feudalism.

Social Structure: Status of Women, Class Structure, Family Structure, Education, Immigration/Migration, Health and Disease

Chinese Women’s Status

• Generally limited by Confucian expectations and patriarchal traditions.

Chinese Social Pyramid

1. Emperor

2. Scholar-Bureaucrats

3. Landowners

4. Peasants

5. Merchants

Importance:
Confucian beliefs valued education and farming more than commerce.

Heian Women

• Elite women often had greater educational and literary opportunities than women in later periods.

Japanese Feudal Pyramid

Emperor

↓

Shogun

↓

Daimyo

↓

Samurai

↓

Peasants

↓

Artisans

↓

Merchants

Political Structure

Parliament

Representative assembly that advised and sometimes limited the power of monarchs.

Importance:

• Increased participation in government.

• Began the development of representative government

Saladin

Muslim leader who united Muslim forces during the Crusades.

Importance:

• Recaptured Jerusalem.

• Respected by both Muslims and Christians.

Richard the Lion-Hearted

King of England and leader during the Third Crusade.

Importance:

• Became a symbol of medieval chivalry and crusading.

King John

King of England known for conflicts with nobles.

Importance:

• Forced to sign the Magna Carta.

Magna Carta

Document signed in 1215 limiting the king's power.

Importance:

• Established that rulers must obey the law.

• Influenced later constitutional governments.

Religion

Papacy

The office and authority of the pope.

Importance:

• Reached the height of its power during the High Middle Ages.

• Influenced politics and society throughout Europe.

Holy Land

Region containing sites sacred to Christianity, Judaism, and Islam.

Importance:

• Main focus of the Crusades.

Pilgrimage

Religious journey to a sacred place.

Importance:

• Demonstrated religious devotion.

• Increased travel and cultural exchange.

Pontiff

• Another term for the pope.

Penance

Actions performed to show repentance for sins.

Importance:

• Important practice in medieval Christianity.

Urban II

Pope who called for the First Crusade in 1095.

Importance:

• Encouraged Christians to reclaim the Holy Land.

Crusades

Series of religious wars between Christians and Muslims.

Importance:

• Increased contact between Europe and the Islamic world.

• Expanded trade and cultural exchange.

• Strengthened monarchs while weakening some feudal nobles.

First Crusade

• Christians captured Jerusalem.

Third Crusade

• Featured Richard the Lion-Hearted and Saladin.

• Ended with agreements allowing Christian pilgrims access to Jerusalem.

Fourth Crusade

• Crusaders attacked Constantinople instead of the Holy Land.

Importance:

• Weakened the Byzantine empire

Reconquista

Christian effort to reclaim the Iberian Peninsula from Muslim rule.

Importance:

• Expanded Christian kingdoms in Spain.

• Ended Muslim political control in most of Iberia.

Joan of Arc

French peasant who claimed divine guidance.

Importance:

• Inspired French forces during the Hundred Years' War.

• Became a national hero of France.

Ideas/Technology

Long Bow

Powerful weapon used by English armies.

Importance:

• Could penetrate armor.

• Reduced the dominance of heavily armored knights.

Vernacular

Everyday language spoken by ordinary people.

Importance:

• Literature became accessible to more people.

• Reduced reliance on Latin.

Military

Long Bow

Revolutionized warfare.

Importance:

• Demonstrated that trained infantry could defeat knights.

Crusades (First, Third, Fourth)

Religious wars that shaped relations between Europe and the Middle East.

Importance:

• Increased trade.

• Encouraged military innovation.

• Expanded cultural exchange.

Reconquista

Military campaign that reshaped Spain.

Importance:

• Expanded Christian kingdoms.

• Increased political unity.

Hundred Years War

• Dispute over who had the right to rule france

Conflict between England and France.

Importance:

• Encouraged nationalism.

• Weakened feudalism.

• Increased the importance of professional armies.

Joan of Arc

• Key figure who helped turn the war in France's favor.

Economic Structure

Plague and the Silk Road

The Black Death spread along trade routes connecting Asia, the Middle East, and Europe.

Importance:

• Demonstrates how increased connectivity can spread disease.

End of Manorialism

As trade and towns expanded, self-sufficient manors became less important.

Importance:

• Economic power shifted toward towns and commerce.

Guilds and Rise of Towns

Organizations of skilled workers and merchants.

Importance:

• Regulated quality and prices.

• Trained apprentices.

• Protected members' interests.

Trade increased and towns grew larger.

Importance:

• Created new economic opportunities.

• Reduced dependence on manorial estates.

Middle Class

Group including merchants, traders, and skilled workers.

Importance:

• Grew because of trade and urbanization.

• Challenged traditional feudal structures.

Social Structure

Middle Class

Guilds

• Also shaped social life by controlling training and membership in occupations.

Merchants

People who bought and sold goods.

Importance:

• Benefited from increased trade.

• Became part of the growing middle class.

Artisans

Skilled workers who produced goods.

Importance:

• Organized into guilds.

• Supported urban economies.

End of Feudalism

Feudal structures weakened because of:

• Growth of trade.

• Rise of towns.

• Stronger monarchies.

• Effects of the Black Death.

Urbanization

Growth of towns and cities.

Importance:

• Created new jobs.

• Increased trade.

• Weakened feudal traditions.

Black Death/Plage

Pandemic that killed millions in Europe.

Importance:

• Reduced population dramatically.

• Created labor shortages.

• Increased wages for workers.

• Contributed to the decline of feudalism.

Political: Type and Structure of Government, Leaders, Law System, Documents, Basis for Citizenship

Henry VIII

King of England who broke from the Catholic Church.

Importance:

• Created the Church of England.

• Strengthened royal authority over religion and government.

Edward VI

• Protestant king who pushed England further toward Protestantism

Mary Tudor

Attempted to restore Catholicism in England.

Importance:

• Led to religious conflict and earned the nickname “Bloody Mary.”

Elizabeth I

Queen of England during a period of relative stability.

Importance:

• Strengthened Protestantism in England.

• Balanced religious conflict between Catholics and Protestants.

Religion: Deity/Higher Power, Rules of Behavior, Sacred Text, Rituals, Philosophy

Humanism

Belief in the value of human potential and achievements.

Importance:

• Focused on classical Greek and Roman ideas.

• Emphasized education and individual achievement.

Reformation

Religious movement that challenged the Catholic Church.

Importance:

• Led to the creation of Protestant churches.

Indulgence

Payment to reduce punishment for sins.

Importance:

• Major abuse criticized by reformers.

Annul

• Official cancellation of a marriage.

Jesuits

Martin Luther

German monk who started the Reformation.

Importance:

• Criticized Church corruption.

• Posted the 95 Theses.

Lutheran

• Branch of Protestantism based on Martin Luther’s teachings.

Protestant

• Christian groups that broke away from the Catholic Church.

Anglican

• Church of England created under Henry VIII.

Jan Hus

Reformer who challenged Church authority before Luther.

Importance:

• Executed for heresy.

John Wycliffe

Early critic of the Catholic Church.

Importance:

• Translated the Bible into English.

Ignatius of Loyola and the Jesuits

Religious order created to defend Catholicism.

Importance:

• Spread Catholic education and missions.

Council of Trent

Meeting of Catholic leaders to respond to the Reformation.

Importance:

• Reformed Church practices.

• Strengthened Catholic doctrine.

95 Theses

Document listing complaints about Church practices, especially indulgences.

Importance:

• Sparked the Protestant Reformation.

Counter-Reformation

Catholic response to Protestantism.

Importance:

• Reformed the Church.

• Tried to stop the spread of Protestant ideas.

The Inquisition

• Church court system used to punish heresy.

Act of Supremacy

Law that declared the king (not the pope) head of the Church of England.

Importance:

• Made England officially separate from the Catholic Church.

Ideas/Techology:

Linear Perspective

• Art technique creating realistic depth.

Vernacular

Common language of the people.

Importance:

• Literature became accessible to ordinary people.

Oil Paint

Printing Press

Invented by Johannes Gutenberg.

Importance:

• Spread ideas quickly.

• Helped spread Reformation ideas.

Raphael

• The school of athens

Leonard Da Vinci

• Mona lisa

Michaelangelo

• Artist known for sculptures and Sistine Chapel paintings.

Secularism

• Focus on non-religious subjects and worldly life

Humanism

Petrarch

• Early humanist thinker often called the “father of humanism.”

Shakespear

Brunelleschi

• Architect who designed the dome of Florence Cathedral.

Gutenberg

Characteristics of the Renaissance

-Humanism

-secularism

- realism in art

- individualism

Heresy

• Wrong belief against the church ideas

Military: Use of Warfare, Weapons, Strategy/ Techniques, Use of Environment

Religious Wars

onflicts between Catholics and Protestants.

Importance:

• Increased political instability in Europe.

• Showed link between religion and politics.

Economics

Patrons

Wealthy individuals who funded artists.

Importance:

• Supported Renaissance art and culture

Trade

Growth of commerce during the Renaissance.

Importance:

• Increased wealth in cities.

• Helped middle class grow.

Social Structure: Status of Women, Class Structure, Family Structure, Education, Immigration/Migration, Health and Disease

Women and Protestantism

Protestantism encouraged more reading of the Bible.

Importance:

• Slightly increased literacy opportunities for women.

• Social roles still largely limited.

Rise of Middle Class

Growth of merchants, bankers, and skilled workers.

Importance:

• Increased influence in society.

• Reduced dominance of nobility.

Politics

Montezuma II

Aztec ruler during Spanish contact.

Importance:

• Ruled during arrival of Spanish conquistadors

• Faced Spanish conquest led by Hernán Cortés

Aztec City-States

The Aztec Empire was made up of city-states that were controlled through alliances and tribute.

Importance:

• Created a powerful empire in central Mexico

• Required tribute (goods and labor) from conquered regions

Pachacuti

• Expanded the empire

Incan Unity

The Inca Empire was highly centralized.

Importance:

• Strong control over diverse regions

• Efficient administration using roads and communication systems

State Controlled Economy

Government controlled labor and production.

Importance:

• Allowed the Inca to distribute resources efficiently

• Workers contributed labor to state projects

Cuzco

Capital city of the Inca Empire.

Importance:

• Political and religious center of Inca civilization

Atahualpa

Last ruler of the Inca Empire.

Importance:

• Captured and executed by Spanish forces

• Marked the fall of the Inca Empire

Religion

Quetzacoatl

• Aztec god associated with wind, learning, and creation.

Huitzilopochtli

Aztec god of war and the sun.

Importance:

• Central to Aztec religious rituals and warfare ideology

Human Sacrifice

-prefer war captives

Inti

• Inca sun god

Virachocha

• Creator god

Temple of Sun

• Religious structure for the Inca

• Center of worship for inti

Ideas/Technology

Obsidian

Chinampas

Tenochtitlan

Quipu

Road Systems

• Connected the empire

Military

Triple Alliance

Tenochitilian, Texoco, Tlacopan

Alliance between three city-states that formed the Aztec Empire.

Importance:

• Basis of Aztec political power

• Expanded control through conquest

Ideology of Conquest

• Justified the expansion and warfare

Economics

Mita

• Labor tax system

• Citizens provide labor for the government and the government used this as advantage to build roads, temples, and farms

Social Structure

Calpulli

• Social unit based on family groups

Ayllu

• Based on extended family

Quechua

• Main language

Political: Type and Structure of Government, Leaders, Law System, Documents, Basis for Citizenship

Aztec Empire and Montezuma II

• Aztec Empire led by rulers like Montezuma II

• Inca Empire led by rulers like Atahualpa

Importance:

• Both were conquered by Spanish forces

• Their fall helped Spain build large colonial empires in the Americas

Last major ruler of the Aztecs during Spanish arrival.

Importance:

• Met Hernán Cortés

• Aztec Empire fell during his reign

Inca Empire and Atahualpa

Last emperor of the Inca Empire.

Importance:

• Captured and executed by Spanish conquistadors

Rise of the West

Europe gained global power through:

• Exploration

• Colonization

• Control of trade routes

• Military technology

Importance:

• Shifted global power toward Europe

Religion: Deity/Higher Power, Rules of Behavior, Sacred Text, Rituals, Philosophy

Jesuits

Catholic religious order focused on spreading Christianity.

Importance:

• Sent missionaries worldwide

• Supported Catholic expansion

Missionaries

People who spread religion to new regions.

Importance:

• Spread Christianity in the Americas, Africa, and Asia

Bartolome de Las Casas

• Criticized Spanish treatment of Indigenous peoples

• Argued against abuse in the Americas

Importance:

• Early voice for Indigenous rights

Ideas:

Motivation for Exploration: God, Glory, Gold

Biodiversity

Military: Use of Warfare, Weapons, Strategy/ Techniques, Use of Environment

Gunpowder Technology

• Gave Europeans military advantage

• Helped defeat empires like the Aztec and Inca

Conquistadors: Hernando Cortes, Francisco Pizarro

• Conquered large Native American empires

• Established Spanish colonies

Economics

Encomiendas

Spanish labor system in the Americas.

• Natives were forced to work for Spanish landowners

• Claimed to provide protection and religious instruction

Inflation

Plantation

Tariff

Joint Stock Company

Trading Companies: British and Dutch East India Company

Entrepreneur

Colony

Atlantic Slave Trade

• Massive forced migration

• Supported plantation economies

Triangular Trade

Trade system between:

• Europe

• Africa

• Americas

Importance:

• Connected continents economically

• Fueled slavery and plantation systems

Middle Passage

Journey of enslaved Africans across the Atlantic.

Importance:

• Extremely deadly and inhumane

Columbian Exchange

Colonial Empires

Commercial Revolution

Expansion of trade and business activity in Europe.

Importance:

• Growth of banking, trade, and capitalism

Capitalism

• Economic system based on private ownership and profit.

Mercantilism

Favorable Balance of Trade

• When a country exports more than it imports.

Social Structure: Status of Women, Class Structure, Family Structure, Education, Immigration/Migration, Health and Disease

Slavery

“Mestizo”

• Person of mixed European and Indigenous ancestry.

“Mulatto”

• Person of mixed European and African ancestry.

Columbian Exchange

Demographics

Colonists