FFP Loft Buildings

GLOSSARY

  • Ashlar masonry: Stone cut into rectangular units (most often 18” to 24” high by 2 to 3 feet long). Attached to the façade wall of a building using cement mortar or cement/lime mix. Iron plating is sometimes used to imitate Ashlar masonry with similar attachment to the facade wall and may also have a hollow core.

  • Ammonia Diffusion System: A fire protection system found in cold storage warehouses where anhydrous ammonia is used as a refrigerant. The system provides release valves and a siamese connection for the fire service to dilute the refrigerant flowing out of the relief device into the city sewer system.

  • Automatic fire door: Protects horizontal openings between buildings or between sections within a building from fire spread. Doors are activated by a fusible link and can be sliding, roll-down or hinge type.

  • Brick arch floor: Segmental brick arch floor sprung between wrought-iron I-beams. Wrought-iron tie-rods, providing necessary tension resistance, are stretched from beam to beam to maintain the arch from pushing outward at the base. The tie-rods may or may not be protected by fire-resistant material.

  • Cast-iron column: Used as load-bearing components in cast-iron building construction on the exterior front facade and to provide floor support on the interior, also present in hybrid type Mill loft buildings.

  • Cast-iron wall plate: Repository for wooden floor beams, designed to allow beams to collapse in a fire without pulling down the walls.

  • Deadlights: Fixed glass segments embedded in cast-iron frames or masonry to provide natural light for sidewalk vaults.

  • Enclosed stair: Structurally separate from the building containing no common floor joists with the interior floor area.

  • Facade Gas Valve: A gas main shut-off valve located on the exterior wall of some cast-iron lofts, very rare and no longer in service, also known as a “Star Valve.”

  • Fire tower: A “smoke-proof”, non-combustible stairway found in both Mill loft and Fireproof loft construction, entered through an intermediate vestibule adjacent to a smoke shaft venting combustion by-products.

  • Flat slab “mushroom” floor: A steel-reinforced concrete floor with no supporting beams except at the building perimeter, resting directly on columns usually built with enlarged capitals.

  • Gravity tank: An elevated tank for fire protection purposes, intended for storing water and maintaining steady water pressure.

  • Hose Header: A bonnet with multiple valve outlets utilizing water from fire pumps, generally located on an exterior wall of the building, can also be used as an inlet if fire pumps are out of service.

  • Iron shutters: Glazing protectors inhibiting fire from spreading out windows to neighboring buildings and preventing auto-exposure.

  • Mortise and tenon joinery: Rectangular cavity (mortise) cut into corner posts to receive a projection (tenon) at the end of floor girders in Mill loft construction. Wooden dowels may be used for securing connections.

  • Monitor: Raised structures above roof level to allow light to enter the building.

  • Pediment: A wide, low-pitched gable surmounting the facade of a building, can also be found over windows.

  • Pressure tank: A pressurized water supply source located above the highest level of the sprinkler system, supplied with water through an independent fixed pipe.

  • Quoins: Block masonry cornerstones, usually with cast-iron plating, located at each end of the front facade of a cast-iron loft building, both structural and/or decorative.

  • Sawtooth roof: A roof designed to disperse natural light uniformly throughout the structure, characterized by parallel triangular roof sections of near-vertical glazing (commonly facing true north).

  • Scuppers: Cast-iron drains built into Mill loft walls at roof level to reduce water accumulation.

  • Sidewalk vault: A three-wall sub-surface enclosure under a sidewalk.

  • Skywalk: An enclosed walkway bridge above ground, spanning a roadway or courtyard between two buildings.

  • Steel Tension Cables/Rods with Reinforcing Plates (Stars): Used to strengthen and cross-tie above-ground walls in brick or masonry buildings.

  • Stepped wall and column system: Exterior walls and interior columns larger at lower levels accommodating additional upper-floor loads.

  • Straight run stairs: Found in older cast-iron lofts, these stairs lead from the front to the rear wall of the building with occupant/tenant entrance doors on each floor.

  • Synthetic walls: Large horizontal glazing on the street facade of a loft building designed for natural light into first floor and sub-level areas.

  • Terra cotta tile arch floor: Segmental terra cotta tile arch sprung between wrought-iron beams for warehouse load support.

  • Terra cotta tile flat arch floor: True segmental arches where all tiles are in compression, where the removal of a tile can cause a collapse.

  • Wall hydrant/manifold: Outlets on an exterior wall supplied by gravity tanks or pressure tanks for building water sourcing.

1. INTRODUCTION

  • 1.1 Purpose of Lofts: Originally occupied for merchandise storage and sales, later shifted to manufacturing. Characterized by high ceilings, spacious open areas, and freight elevators positioned near the entrance.
  • 1.2 Legal Status: The "Loft Law" passed in 1982 established these properties as legal multiple dwellings.

2. DESCRIPTION

  • 2.1 Historical Context of Loft Construction: Development of cast-iron and wrought-iron structural elements in the 1840s, which combined with elevators allowed taller buildings. Significant cast-iron construction flourished in lower Manhattan, particularly in SOHO, which was once known for fire-ravaged lofts. Other notable areas include Ladies Mile, Tribeca, Chelsea, and Williamsburg. The last cast-iron front loft building was completed in NYC in 1901.

  • 2.2 Mill (Heavy Timber) Lofts: Least common type, originally for manufacturing/warehousing, typically near waterways/rail lines. Found in Chelsea, Downtown Brooklyn, Maspeth, and Hunts Point.

  • 2.3 Fireproof Lofts: Newest and most common type utilizing steel columns, girders, and reinforced concrete, introducing fireproof construction, common in areas like Bush Terminal, DUMBO, Long Island City, South Bronx, and Midtown West.

3. PURPOSE

  • 3.1 Describing Loft Buildings: To delineate various types of loft buildings accommodating diverse occupancies (industrial, manufacturing, storage, commercial, etc.) throughout NYC.

  • 3.2 Identifying Construction Features: Recognizing construction-related challenges concerning fire dangers.

  • 3.3 Guidelines for Fire Operations: Establishing operational guidelines and precautions for working at fires in such buildings.

  • 3.4 Enhancing Operational Safety: Aiming to lessen human and economic loss via safety enhancements.

4. TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION

  • 4.1 Older Cast-Iron Lofts (1840s – 1870s):

    • 4.1.1 Structure & Dimensions: Generally 7-8 stories tall with brick, stone, or iron external walls, 25 feet wide frontages (no internal columns), depth of 90 feet.
    • 4.1.2 Construction Characteristics: Larger buildings could be irregularly constructed (L-shaped) and possess first-floor extensions. High ceilings (minimum 8 feet).
    • 4.1.3 Support Systems: Support includes wooden floor joists, cast or wrought iron columns, and brick or wood interiors with flat wood rafters roofs where top floors may be dropped ceilings.
    • 4.1.4 Occupancy: Commercial on lower areas, ground floor, and second floors, residences above.
    • 4.1.5 Renovations: Non-central HVAC systems, installation of automatic sprinklers due to building code updates.

  • 4.2 Newer Cast-Iron Lofts (1880s – 1901):

    • 4.2.1 Construction and Height: Built higher (8-12 stories) with brick, stone, and framings. Minimum 3-hour fire resistive ratings for external walls.
    • 4.2.2 Loft Features: Enclosed stairs with protected cast-iron columns and fire-rated stairways.
    • 4.2.3 Utility Systems: Renovations include utility shafts and upgraded utilities; fire escapes accessible from all building sides.

  • 4.3 Mill Lofts:

    • 4.3.1 Structure and Dimensions: Often 4-6 stories with load-bearing brick exterior walls, dimensions can be up to 200 feet deep.
    • 4.3.2 Interior Structure: Nonbsorptional materials with chambers for girder support and high ceilings for large work areas.
    • 4.3.3 Utility Systems: Automatic sprinkler and standpipe systems built to current codes with upgraded utilities.

  • 4.4 Fireproof Lofts:

    • 4.4.1 Construction Characteristics: Made from brick, cement, or metal with steel-reinforced concrete floors, typical height of 10-15 stories.
    • 4.4.2 Safety Features: Enclosed stairways provide non-combustible egress; vehicles under high voltages, automatic sprinklers, and pressure tanks ensure safety.

5. CONSTRUCTION FEATURES

  • 5.1 Older Cast-Iron Lofts:

    • 5.1.1 Sidewalk Vaults: Underground structures below sidewalks, spanning widths indicated by granite blocks, supported by I-beams, often with glass or alternative material covers.
    • 5.1.2 Elevator Shafts: Freight and passenger elevators positioned centrally; freight elevators absent in residential conversions.
    • 5.1.3 Enclosed Air and Light Shafts: ACS provide natural light and air flow; protective shutters are commonplace.
    • 5.1.4 Utility Shafts: Vertical openings housing plumbing/electrical, can allow fire spread due to lack of firestopping.
    • 5.1.5 Sub-level Openings: Openings flush with sidewalks facilitating movement serve various functions, creating hazards.
    • 5.1.6 Fireplaces: Feature usable and bricked-over fireplace on all levels, vulnerable to fire spread due to chimney issues.
    • 5.1.7 Flat Floor Skylights: Historically contributed to fires, recent tragedies prompted regulatory changes.
    • 5.1.8 Gravity Tanks: Roof modifications for tank support, supply water for fire systems.
    • 5.1.9 Iron Window Shutters: Designed for fire protection, their presence and effectiveness may be compromised.
    • 5.1.10 Cast-Iron/Wrought-Iron Arches and Columns: Their material properties pose unique firefighting challenges and collapse risks.
    • 5.1.11 Fire Escapes: Each building features multiple types of fire escapes, safety concerns for age and access can complicate their use.
    • 5.1.12 Depressed Rear Courtyards: Add complexity to firefighting; often limited access and hindered visibility due to adjacent walls/fences.
    • 5.1.13 Straight Run Stairs: Made from wood, may not go all the way to upper levels, can be hazardous when exposed to fire conditions.
    • 5.1.14 Cast-Iron Stairs: Found in various locations with protection against environmental conditions.
    • 5.1.15 Variable Ceiling Heights: High ceilings enhance volume but can complicate firefighting; suffers from variations due to renovations.
    • 5.1.16 Sub-Cellars: Difficult to ventilate, often lacking windows which adds distress to firefighting actions.
    • 5.1.17 Plate Glass Facades: Enhance natural light but pose high collapse hazards and injury risk from glass shattering.
    • 5.1.18 Contiguous Buildings of Different Heights: Must be dealt with during vertical movement operations due to uneven roof alignments.
    • 5.1.19 Ornamental Roof Cornices and Pediments: Present hazards during firefighting, as they often project outwards obstructing operations.
    • 5.1.20 Mixed Occupancy: Various commercial and residential uses create diverse responses and strategies for firefighting.
    • 5.1.21 Mezzanines: Open constructions for additional space that can complicate fire navigation during operations.
    • 5.1.22 Synthetic Walls: Serve as access points for firefighting efforts providing necessary openings.
    • 5.1.23 Quoins: Architectural features giving visual appeal while assisting in distinguishing surrounding buildings in emergency situations.
    • 5.1.24 Alterations/Renovations: Common in older lofts impacting structural integrity and firefighting protocols and challenges.

  • 5.2 Newer Cast-Iron Lofts: Features blend some aspects from older designs while embracing more recent innovations (similar risks and structures in some instances).

  • 5.3 Mill Lofts: Combination of heavy timber with modern features presents unique firefighting risks, needing distinct approaches for effective management.

  • 5.4 Fireproof Lofts: Structure elements emphasize enhanced fire resistance with features for effective fire management, posing distinct safety issues in operations.

6. ENGINE COMPANY OPERATIONS

  • 6.1 General Tactics (Cast-Iron and Mill Loft Buildings):

    • 6.1.1 Size-up dictates hose size; 1 ¾” for smaller areas, 2 ½” for larger spaces.
    • 6.1.2 Utilize multiple stairways/exteriors for hose stretching when necessary.
    • 6.1.3 Monitor conditions behind hoseline for fire hazards during operations.
    • 6.1.4 Communication of hoseline attacks essential for safety management.
    • 6.1.5 Designate locations for second hoseline when conditions dictate.
    • 6.1.6 Employ exterior streams for rapid knockdown as needed, careful with LCS initiation.
    • 6.1.7 Manage risks of backdrafts in poorly vented areas by positioning lines strategically.
    • 6.1.8 Avoid direct streams on segmental arch floors to prevent spalling.
    • 6.1.9 Review sprinkler systems and operability based on codes and configurations.

  • 6.2 Specific Tactics (Cast-Iron and Mill Loft Buildings):

    • 6.2.1 Navigate cellar and sub-cellar fires with strategic hoseline placement to ensure efficiency.
    • 6.2.2 Focus on decisions involving upward expanses for hoseline stretching and backups.
    • 6.2.3 Manage upper-floor firefighting consistent with conditions noted, ensuring coordinated operations.

7. LADDER COMPANY OPERATIONS

  • 7.1 General Tactics (Cast-Iron and Mill Loft Buildings):

    • 7.1.1 Assign duties for ventilation, entry, and search; ensure safety during high-risk operations.
    • 7.1.2 Determine optimum positions for tower ladders to maximize operational efficiency.
    • 7.1.3 Avoid hazards presented by uneven streets and structural failures.
    • 7.1.4 Choose correct entry points to streamline operations in resident-occupied spaces.
    • 7.1.5 Facilitate communication regarding searching and securing vital information for operational awareness.

  • 7.2 Specific Tactics (Cast-Iron and Mill Loft Buildings):

    • 7.2.1 Adapt procedures for cellar and sub-cellar engagements to align operations with situational assessments.
    • 7.2.2 Prioritize horizontal ventilation tasks while managing proximity to fire and hazards within structure.
    • 7.2.3 Operations must consider weak points and potential for collapse due to operations and acute hazards.