Indian Architecture and Sculpture Notes

Sculpture: Definition

Sculpture is the art of processing plastic or hard materials into works of art through carving, modeling, or welding.

North Indian Temple Architecture

• Mauryan Period: Earliest structural temples found from excavations.
• A circular brick and timber shrine from the 3rd century B.C. was discovered in Bairat District, Jaipur, Rajasthan.
• Early temples had flat roofs and shallow pillars.
• Later stages included features like shikhara and pradakshina path.

Common Features of Temples

1. Garbhagriha:
   • Also known as Sanctum Sanctorum.
   • A small room housing the principal deity.
2. Mandapa:
   • Entrance to the temple.
   • Can be a portico or a pillared hall.
3. Ardhamandapa:
   • Porch approaching the mandapa.
4. Shikhara:
   • Mountain-like spire on top of the Garbagriha.
5. Vahana:
   • Mount or vehicle of the main deity.
   • Placed before the garbagriha.

Harappan Civilization Architecture

• Characteristics:
  • Indigenous and uninfluenced architecture.
  • Prioritized practical functionality over aesthetics.
  • Large-scale public buildings and spacious houses, not grand palaces or tombs.
• Town Planning:
  • Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro notable for town planning.

Essential Features of Harappan Urban Design

• Rectangular Grid Pattern:
  • Cities designed on a grid pattern with streets running north-south and east-west.
  • Streets and lanes intersected at right angles, dividing the city into rectangular blocks.
  • Narrow lanes connected to the main street.
  • House doors opened into lanes, not main streets.
  • Demonstrates knowledge of measurement.
• Planned Streets:
  • Streets and alleyways were planned and constructed with precision.
  • Wide enough for carts and pedestrians.
  • Some streets had covered drains.
  • The main street was 10 meters wide, dividing the town into rectangular and square blocks.
• Fortification:
  • Cities were surrounded by fortified walls made of mud bricks.
  • Protected from robbers, cattle raiders, and floods.
• Division of Cities:
  • Divided into an upraised citadel and a lower town.
  • Upper Part (Citadel):
    • Located in the western part of the city.
    • Elevated foundation for significant structures.
    • Included granaries, administrative buildings, pillared halls, and courtyards.
    • Housed essential residential structures for the general public or select residents.
    • Cities like Harappa, Mohenjodaro, and Kalibangan had citadels built atop tall mud-brick podiums.
  • Lower Part:
    • Contained brick houses inhabited by common people.
• Material Used:
  • Burnt bricks were used extensively.
  • Absence of stone buildings.
  • Houses were built of mud bricks, while drainages were built with burnt bricks.
• Standardized Brick Size:
  • Uniform brick size with a 1:2:4 ratio in terms of thickness: width: length.
  • Suggests sophisticated planning and craftsmanship.
  • Uniformity in the average size of bricks for houses and city walls.
• Residential Areas:
  • Cities divided into distinct residential areas.
  • Houses made of baked bricks, often with multiple stories.
  • Houses generally built around courtyards.
  • Some houses had private wells and ventilated bathrooms.
  • No windows faced the streets, and bathrooms were tiled.
• The Great Bath:
  • Situated within a courtyard.
  • Corridors on all four sides, stairs on the northern and southern sides.
  • A flight of steps led to the surface at either end.
  • Well-paved with several adjacent rooms.
  • Side rooms for changing clothes.
  • Bricks were water-tightly installed with gypsum mortar.
  • The bath floor was made of burnt bricks.
  • Associated with ritual baths connected to religious ceremonies.
  • Water was drawn from a large well in an adjacent room.
  • An outlet from the corner of the bath led to a drain.
  • Example: Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro.
• Sophisticated Drainage Systems:
  • Elaborate and well-laid-out drainage system.
  • Every house had drains connected to the street drains.
  • Drains made of mortar, lime, and gypsum.
  • Covered with manhole bricks or stone slabs for cleaning.
  • Constructed at regular intervals by the side of the streets for cleaning.
  • Demonstrates knowledge in sanitation science.
• Granaries and Storage Facilities:
  • Well-planned granaries and storage facilities to store surplus agricultural produce.
  • Thick walls to protect stored food from pests.
  • Often located near the citadel or the city center.
  • Granaries were brick structures over 45 meters in north-south and east-west directions.
  • Partly paved with baked bricks.
  • Each room had three sleeper walls with air space between them.
  • Small triangular openings served as air ducts for fresh air beneath the hollow floors.
• Cities Having Granaries:
  • Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa, Kalibangan.
• Commercial Areas:
  • Commercial areas present within the cities.
  • Artisans, craftsmen, and merchants conducted their trade.
  • Specialized workshops and shops, indicating a well-organized economic system.
  • Evidence of breadmaker shops at Chanhudaro and Lothal.
• Dockyard:
  • The massive dockyard at Lothal is the greatest work of maritime architecture during the IVC.
  • Discovered on the banks of the Sabarmati River.
  • The structure's design demonstrates a thorough investigation of tides, hydraulics, and the effect of seawater on bricks.
  • Lothal is the only IVC city with a dockyard.
• Town Planning Uniformity:
  • Uniformity observed across multiple cities.
  • Similarities in the layout, construction techniques, and standardization of bricks indicate a centralized authority or shared urban planning system.
  • Influence on Present-Day Urbanization:
    • Urban Planning: Cities like Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro were well-planned and organized (e.g., Chandigarh follows a similar grid system).
    • Zoning and Segregation: Division of cities into a citadel and a lower town reflects zoning and segregation, evident in modern urban landscapes.
    • Sanitation and Drainage: The IVC had an impressive drainage system, with almost every house having its own bathroom and courtyard; modern cities strive for efficient sanitation and waste management systems.
    • Use of Standardised Construction Material: Using standardized, fired bricks is now a norm in modern construction.
    • Public Spaces: The Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro indicates the importance of public spaces, integral to modern urban planning.
      Overall, the town planning of the Harappan Civilization reflects a highly organized and efficient urban society with a strong emphasis on hygiene, safety, and community welfare.

Mauryan Architecture

• Refers to the architectural style during the Mauryan Empire (322 BCE to 185 BCE).
• Monumental stone sculpture and architecture became prominent.
• Ashoka's adoption of Buddhism promoted distinctive sculptural and architectural styles.
• Creation of Stupas, Pillars, Caves, Palaces, and Pottery.
• Connected to the lives, activities, and patronage of ordinary people.
• Structures:
  • Stupas: Important religious structures.
  • Pillars: Created as memorials, with edicts of Ashoka inscribed on them.
  • Caves: Used for meditation and worship, with intricate carvings and sculptures.
  • Palaces: Grand structures for the king and royal family, with gardens and courtyards.
  • Pottery: Various types created, including terracotta figurines and utensils.

Post-Mauryan Architecture

• The era following the decline of the Mauryan Empire (second century BC).
• Significant changes in Indian art and architecture.
• Ruled by dynasties such as Shungas, Kanvas, Kushanas, and Guptas in the north and central India.
• Satavahanas, Abhiras, Ikshvakus, and Vakatakas in the south and western India.

Architectural Developments

• Emergence of early temples, a shift from the stupa-based architecture of the Mauryan era.
• Temples often featured images of gods and narratives from Puranas.
• Architectural styles varied, with Sandhara, Nirandhara, and Sarvatobhadra being prominent ones.

Southern Indian Contributions

• Vengi region in Andhra Pradesh was known for its stupas, most notably in Amaravati.
• The Amaravati School of Art developed during the Satavahana period.
• Known for its intricate and emotional sculptures, often depicting scenes from Buddha's life.

Gupta Architecture

• The Gupta Empire ruled over ancient India from the fourth century CE to the end of the sixth century CE
• The earliest religious buildings were cave-temples with one carved doorway and sculptures on the outside.
• Inside, there were sculptures for rituals, like the Shiva linga, and walls carved with stories.
• Ajanta caves:
  • UNESCO World Heritage site in Maharashtra.
  • Contains paintings exhibiting Buddha’s journey.
  • Instances of mural paintings and fresco technique painting.
• Ellora caves:
  • In Charanandri hills, a group of 34 rock-cut caves.
  • Exhibit Brahminical (Hindu), Jain, and Buddhist philosophy through art.
  • Built from the 6th to 12th century during Kalachuri, Chalukya and Rashtrakuta dynasty.
• Elephanta caves:
  • UNESCO World Heritage site.
  • The first group of caves is Hindu, and the second group is Buddhist.

Ancient Town Classification

1. Dandaka
2. Sarvathobhadra
3. Nandyavarta
4. Padmaka
5. Swastika
6. Prastara
7. Karmuka
8. Chaturmukha

Dandaka

• Sanskrit term for a town plan shaped like a staff or rod.
• Symbolized stability and order.
• Used in military fortifications.
• Believed to promote positive energy and enhance functionality.
• Streets are straight and cross each other at right angles at the center, running west to east and south to north.
• Provides for two main entrance gates.
• Adopted for small towns and villages.
• Village is Rectangular / Square with street width varying from 1-5 Banda.
• Village office located in the east.
• Female deity (Gramadevata) generally located outside the village, whereas male deities are in the northern portion.

Sarvathobadra

• Term for a town plan shaped like an umbrella.
• Symbolized protection and shelter.
• Characterized by its circular shape and radiating streets.
• Provided a sense of harmony and balance.
• Used in religious and spiritual structures such as temples and ashrams.
• The circular shape believed to promote positive energy and enhance functionality.
• Applicable to larger villages and towns constructed on oblong or square sites.
• The whole town should be fully occupied with HOUSES of various descriptions inhabited by all classes of people.
• Temple dominates the village.

Nandyavarta

• Sanskrit term for a circular town plan with a central square and streets radiating outwards.
• Symbolized unity and completeness.
• The central square served as a gathering place.
• Mainly used for the construction of TOWNS and not villages.
• Adopted for sites which are either circular or square with 3000- 4000 houses.
• The streets run parallel to the central adjoining streets with the temple of the presiding deity in the center of the town.
• Temple of the presiding deity is at the center of the town.

Padmaka (Lotus Petals)

• Sanskrit term for a town plan shaped like a lotus flower.
• The lotus flower was a symbol of purity, enlightenment, and beauty.
• Characterized by its circular shape, with streets radiating outwards in a petal-like pattern.
• Practiced for building of the TOWNS with fortress all around.
• The pattern of the PLAN resembles petals of lotus radiating outwards from the center.
• The city used to be an island surrounded by water.
• No scope for expansion.

Swastika

• An ancient Hindu symbol meaning “good fortune” or “well-being.”
• Consists of four arms bent at right angles.
• Arranged in a cross-like pattern, clockwise or counterclockwise.
• Contemplates some diagonal streets dividing the site into certain triangular plots.
• The site may be of any shape.
• The town is surrounded by a rampart wall, with a MOAT at its foot.
• Two main streets cross each other at the center running north to south and west to east.
• Temple is at the centre.

Prastara

• Sanskrit term for the arrangement of tiles or stones used in the construction of floors or pavements.
• An important decorative element creating intricate patterns.
• The characteristic feature is that the site may be either square or rectangular but not triangular or circular.
• The sites are set apart for the very rich, rich, middle class, and poor.
• The size of the site increases according to the capacity of each to purchase or build upon.
• The main roads are much wider when compared to those of other patterns.
• The town may or may not be surrounded by a fort.

Karmuka

• A town plan shaped like a bow.
• Suitable for sites in the form of a bow or semi-circular or parabolic.
• Mostly applied for towns located at sea shores or riverbanks.
• The main streets run from north to south or east to west, and the cross streets run at right angles to them, dividing the whole area into BLOCKS.
• Female deity (the presiding deity) is installed in the temple built in any convenient place.

Chaturmukha

• Sanskrit term for a building or structure that has four faces or entrances.
• Used for temples, gateways, and other religious or secular buildings.
• The four faces symbolize the four cardinal directions, providing protection and access.
• Applicable to all types of towns.
• The site may be either square or rectangular having four faces.
• The town is laid out east to west lengthwise with four main streets.
• The temple of the presiding deity is always at the center.

Vastu Shastra

• Definition: An ancient Indian science of architecture and buildings.
• Helps in creating a harmonious environment by aligning structures with natural forces.
• Purpose: To enhance health, wealth, prosperity, and happiness by optimizing the flow of energy in living and working spaces.
• Scope: Covers site selection, design, layout, measurements, ground preparation, space arrangement, and spatial geometry.

Origins and History

• Ancient Roots: Dates back over 5000 years; mentioned in ancient Indian texts like the Vedas and Puranas.
• Evolution: Initially used in temples and palaces, it evolved to include homes.
• Influence: Influenced by various Indian architectural traditions and practices.
• Key Texts: Manuscripts like “Manasara,” “Mayamatam,” and “Samarangana Sutra Dhara.”

Five Elements (Pancha Bhootas)

• Earth (Prithvi): Represents stability and patience; associated with the southwest direction.
• Water (Jal): Symbolizes fluidity and adaptability; linked to the northeast direction.
• Fire (Agni): Denotes energy and transformation; connected to the southeast direction.
• Air (Vayu): Signifies movement and growth; associated with the northwest direction.
• Space (Aakash): Represents expansion and openness; linked to the center of the structure.

Concept of Vastu Purusha Mandala

• Definition: A metaphysical diagram that represents the cosmic man (Vastu Purusha).
• Used as a guide for layout and design.
• Significance: Ensures that the structure is in harmony with cosmic energies.
• Application: Used in site planning and building orientation.
• Structure: Divided into 64 or 81 squares, each representing a specific deity and aspect of life.

Jyotisha

• Jyotish, often referred to as Vedic astrology, is a profound and ancient system of divination that has its roots deeply embedded in the rich tapestry of Indian culture and philosophy.
• Much more than mere fortune-telling; it’s a comprehensive science that explores the influence of celestial bodies on human life.

Vedic Roots

• As old as the Vedas themselves.
• Vedas contain references to celestial bodies and their significance.
• Vedanga Jyotisha, one of the Vedangas dedicated to astronomy and timekeeping.

Yugas and Cosmic Cycles

• Encompasses the concept of Yugas.
• Each age has a distinct astrological influence on human affairs.

Ancient Scholars

• Contributions of Varahamihira, Aryabhata, and Parashara shaped Jyotish.

Transmission Through the Ages

• Knowledge passed down through the guru-shishya tradition.

Fundamental Principles

• The Zodiac: Uses the sidereal zodiac.
• Planetary Positions: Positions of planets in different signs and houses.
• Nakshatras: Lunar mansions provide deeper insights.
• Houses: Divides the birth chart into 12 houses, each representing specific areas of life.
  • First house relates to the self, the second house to wealth

The Janma Kundali (Birth Chart)

• The cornerstone of Jyotish.

Casting a Birth Chart

• Involves precise details such as the date, time, and place of birth.

Components of a Birth Chart

• Consists of planetary positions, Nakshatras, and houses.
• Planetary aspects, conjunctions, and the placement of the Ascendant (Lagna).

Transits

• Planetary movements through different signs and houses.

Ashtakavarga

• Analyzing the strengths and weaknesses of different planets.

Divisional Charts

• Uses various divisional charts, or vargas, to explore specific areas of a person’s life.
• Navamsa chart for marriage and the Dashamsha chart for career

Remedies

• Offers remedies to mitigate negative influences and enhance positive ones.

Gemstone Therapy

• Wearing specific gemstones associated with favorable planets.
  *Recommendations take into account the planetary rulership and gemstone properties.

Mantras and Rituals

• Chanting mantras and performing rituals to balance planetary energies.
• Including specific mantras for different planets and the importance of regular practice.

Charity and Acts of Kindness

• Believed to offset negative karma and enhance positive planetary influences.

Types of Astrology

• Relationship astrology: deals with relation among two peoples and determined by the type of energy among their relations
• Vocational Astrology: is key to reveal the ideal career for you.
• Financial Astrology: also known as business astrology which is used to determine stock market position, business opportunities.
• Medical Astrology: is an ancient technique used for diagnosis and treatment of diseases.
• Natal Astrology: It helps to predict how your life journey will go through in upcoming years and what changes will occur in different phase of your life.
• Psychological Astrology: is one of the most useful tools to discover one's hidden talents and bring one's true self back to the light,
• Numerology: is number based astrology. It is the numerical calculation of numbers associated with you or your date of birth.
• Nadi astrology: It is based on the belief that the past, present and the future lives of all humans were foreseen by Dharma sages in ancient time
• Horary: Answering the specific question
• Esoteric: Dealing with spiritual matters
• Mundane:: it related to word affair

Vedas

• The word ‘Veda’ generally refers to ‘Mantras’ and ‘Brahmanas’.
• Mantras are hymns in praise of gods who are invoked in a ritual
• Brahmanas are those portions which give various instructions on the performance of rituals.
• Based on this, Veda is said to be of two kinds, Mantras and Brahmanas.

Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanisads

• An anthology of mantras is known as ‘Samhitas’
• The Brahmana portions are an elaboration and are treated as the commentary to the Samhita portions.
• The Brahmana portions are further split into three, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the Upanisads.
• The Brahmana portions primarily teach the nature of ritual (yaga)
• Aranyakas deals with meditation which are generally taken up while living in forest (aranya).
• Upanisads reveal the Absolute Truth, which provides the means to liberation and is popularly known as the ‘Vedanta’.

Rtviks (Priests) for Vedic Rituals

• For a Vedic ritual to take place, it requires four Rtviks (roughly translated as Priests).
  • Hota: invokers the deity using hymns in the Rig-Samhitas, collection is referred to as Rig Veda
  • Adhvaryu: performs the rituals as enjoined
    • Relevant mantras are in the Yajur-Samhita.
    • The collection of this is known as Yajurveda
  • Udgatha: sings in high intonation and maintains the rhythm of chanting as given in Samaveda
  • Brahma: takes care of the entire proceedings of the ritual
    • Suggests compensatory acts in case of omissions and commissions

Rig Veda

• The word ‘Rig’ means praise or eulogy.
• The collection of Rig is known as Rig Veda.
• It is set in metrical form.
• Considered the oldest record of revelations and the language of the Rig is considered as the most ancient.

Branches of Rig-Samhita

1. Shakala
2. Vaskala
3. Ashvalayana
4. Samkhya
5. Mandakayana

Suktas and Mandalas

• Rig-Samhita contains Suktas and Mandalas.
• Sukta means that which has been received from a reliable source and it is of four types:
  • Richi Sukta
  • Devata Sukta
  • Chanda Sukta
  • Artha Sukta

Yajurveda

• Popular with varied descriptions of the yajna or rituals and is found in prose form.

Divisions of Yajur

• Krishna Yajurveda
  • combination of mantras and brahmanas.
• Shukla Yajurveda
  • predominantly mantra portions

Branches of Shukla Yajur

• Madhyandina branch
• Kanva branch
  • There is only a slight difference in the rendering of the contents of these two branches of Shukla Yajurveda.
  • The famous available brahmana of the Krishna Yajurveda is the Taittiriya Brahmana and that of Shukla Yajur is Shatapatha Brahmana.
  • The main Aranyaka portions of the Yajurveda are Taittiriya Aranyaka and Brihadaranyaka (also contains upanisadic portions).
    The widely read Upanisads of the Krishna Yajurveda are Kathopanisad and Taittiriyopanisad. The upanisads of the Shukla Yajurveda are Brihadaranayka and the Ishopanisad.

Samaveda

• The Samaveda is the Rig Veda set in musical form.
• Archika Part
  • meanings of the words divided into Purva Archika and Uttara Archika.
  • Purva Archika consists of six chapters and is divided into four parts as:
    1. Agneya parva (consists of mantras related to Agni)
    2. Aindra parva (consists of mantras related to Indra)
    3. Pavamana parva (with mantras related to Soma)
    4. Aranyakas ( meditations)
• Ganam Part

Atharvaveda

• Consists of nine branches and only two such branches available, namely, the Shaunaka branch and the Pippalada branch.
• There are three Samhitas of the Atharva, namely, Aashi, Acharya and Vidhiprayoga Samhitas.
• The only available Brahmana of the Atharvaveda is the Gopatha Brahmanam consisting of two parts, Purvagopatha and Uttaragopatha.

Upanisads

*The prime source of many philosophical conclusions.

• The word can be split as upa+ni+sat; to mean ‘upa’ – approaching a teacher; ‘ni’ – for knowledge; ‘sat’ – to attain liberation
• Student sat near the teacher to receive secret instructions.
• Composed between 800 BCE and the end of the Vedic period.
• Derived from the Aranyakas.
• Consists of philosophical works, including older principal Upanishads like Bṛhadaraṇyaka and Chandogya.

Upanishads are Vedanta

• End of the Vedas

Vedic Literature

• Vast with several branches and sections.
• Vedic concepts and doctrines have highly influenced the religious and philosophical thinking of India.

Vedangas

• Vedanga literally means "limbs of the Vedas," and refers to the six disciplines connected with studying the Vedas
• They were created to offer students of the Vedas a comprehensive and complete grasp of the literature
• The six Vedangas are as follows
  • Shiksha or phonetics or pronunciation
  • Kalpa or ritual
  • Vyakarana or grammar
  • Nirukta or etymology
  • Chandas or metre
  • Jyotisha or astronomy

Shiksha or Phonetics

• 'teaching in reciting,' i.e., precise pronunciation of the Samhita texts
• The Shiksha-Sutras are phonetic treatises
• Linked to the Samhita and old
• Fixes the parameters of Vedic words, pronunciation.

Kalpa or Ritual

• The right use of Vedic scriptures
• Main topic of the Brahmanas used in the manuals known as the Kalpa Sutras
• They include the regulations in Sutra form
• More practical than the Brahmanas

Vyakarana or Grammar

• Required for interpreting the Veda
• Examines the root (Prakriti) and suffix (Pratyaya) of a word to determine its meaning
• Vyakarana by Panini is written in the form of sutras or aphorisms

Nirukta or Etymology

• Explains why a specific term has been employed, i.e., the meaning of use
• Yaska's Nirukta is the sole surviving example
• Made up of three lists that group Vedic terms together according to certain fundamental principles.

Chandas or Metre

• Chandas Vedanga is considered as the Veda Purusha's feet. The Vedas' body is supported by the Chandas, which are shaped like feet.
  *Each Vedic Mantra has its own Chandas, as well as a governing Devata.
  *The term Chandas, according to Nirukta, is derived from the root Chad (to cover).
  *Ensuring correct reading and recitation of Vedic literature

Jyotisha or Astronomy

• The goal of Jyotisha Vedanga is not to educate astronomy, but to impart knowledge of the celestial bodies essential for determining the days and hours of Vedic sacrifices
• Study of the movement of planets determining the time of the day and night, the day of the week and fortnight, the period of the seasons, the month and the year

Universal Human Values

• Values conceived and preferred by people in a society
• Inspired their actual conduct and behavior and prepared them to attain the best in their lives.

Influences on Human Values:

• Culture and Society: Culture impacting people’s values.
• Family and Upbringing: Significantly influenced by family dynamics and upbringing.
• Formal Institutions and Education: Education teaching values.
• Personal Experiences and Interactions: Shaped and altered through personal experiences, such as social interactions and exposure to various viewpoints.
• Media and Popular Culture: By promoting popular ideas, customs, and lifestyles, media
• Religion and Spirituality: Framework for moral principles, ethical precepts and value systems
• SUPREME GOALS (PURUSHARTHAS)

Four values, which give meaning to human life. They are called Purusharthas

• Dharma
• Artha
• Kama
• Moksha

Dharma

*Virtue, duty, right, morality, justice, good, characteristics, tradition, ordinance and law
*Sadharana: universal scope and validity
*Varnasrama dharma: duties of persons according to the castes and the stages of life

Artha (Wealth)

*Attainment of riches and worldly prosperity, advantage, profit and wealth.

Kama (Satisfaction of Desires)

• Comprehensive term, which includes all desires
• Clear emphasis on the enjoyment of secular pleasures

Moksha (Liberation)

• Also known as by other names such as mukti, apavarya, kaivalya and nirvana.

Jainism

• Became prevalent in the 6th century B.C. when Lord Mahavira propagated the religion.
• There were 24 teachers, referred to as jinas or the Tirthankaras, the last of whom was Lord Mahavira
• The Varna system partitioned the people into 4 classes based on their birth, where the two upper classes enjoyed various privileges and the lower castes led a miserable life.

Vardhamana Mahavira

• Jainism's 24th and last Tirthankara, was born in Kundagrama near Vaishali in 540 B.C.
• At the age of 30 years, he renounced his home and became an ascetic.
• He practiced austerity for 12 years and acquired the highest spiritual knowledge termed Kaivalya (conquered sorrow and happiness) at 42.
• He delivered his first sermon at Pava.
• From this time until his death, he taught the philosophy of Jainism for 30 years.
• He died at 72 at Pavapuri in Bihar in 468 B.C

Jain Beliefs

• Jainism does not believe in a supreme creator or ruler of the universe.

Jain Orders

*Digambara: sky clad
*Shvetambara :white-clad

Triratna

To achieve the soul's liberation, the three jewels of Jaina ethics must be followed.

• Samyag Darshana (Right faith): Seeing things correctly, avoiding preconceived notions and superstitions
• Samyag Jnana (Right knowledge): Having knowledge of the real universe
• Samyag Charitra (Right conduct): Avoiding harm to living beings and liberating oneself from impure thoughts and attitudes

Pancha Mahavrata

In order to accomplish Triratna, one has to follow the Pancha Mahavrata or the five great vows

• Ahimsa (Non-violence)
  Non-violence is the supreme religion (Ahimsa parmo dharma).

• Satya (Truth-Do not lie): speaking for the truth

• Asteya (non-stealing)

• Brahmacharya (observe continence)

• Aparigraha (non-attachment)

• ### Decline of Jainism:

• Competition with Buddhism & Hinduism

• Lack of Popular Preachers

• Royal Patronage loss

Jain Architecture

• Gumphas / Layana (Caves)
  • Ellora Caves- Maharashtra
  • Mangi Tungi Cave- Maharashtra
  • Gajpantha Cave- Maharashtra
  • Udayagiri-Khandagiri Caves- Odisha
  • Hathi-gumpha Cave- Odisha
  • Sittanavasal Cave- Tamil Nadu
• Statues
  • Gomateshwara/Bahubali Statue in Shravanabelagola, Karnataka
  • Statue of Ahimsa(Rishabnatha) in Mangi-Tungi hills, Maharashtra

Buddhism

• Buddhism is one of the oldest religions in the world, Buddhism has its roots in India and dates back 2,500 years.
• Buddhists hold that enlightenment, or nirvana, can be attained by meditation, hard work both spiritual and physical and good conduct

History & Origin of Buddhism

• Buddhism arose 2,600 years ago in India as a way of living helpful in enhancing one’s life.
• In the countries of South and Southeast Asia, it is one of the most important religions.
• Buddha is also called Sakyamuni or Tathagata.
• Buddhism was founded on the teachings and life experiences of Siddhartha Gautam, who was born in 563 BCE.
• He was born into the royal dynasty of the Sakya clan, which ruled from Kapilvastu on the Indo-Nepal border in Lumbini.
• Gautama left home at the age of 29, opting for asceticism, or extreme self-discipline, over a life of prosperity.
• After 49 days of meditation, Gautama gained Bodhi (enlightenment) under a pipal tree in Bodhgaya, a hamlet in Bihar.
• Buddha presented his first sermon in the village of Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh, near the