Social Psych Exam 1

Chapter 1:

Behavioral economics: interdisciplinary subfield that focuses on how psychology, particularly social and cognitive psychology relates to economic decision making

Behavioral genetics: subfield of psychology that examines the role of genetic factors in behavior

Cross-cultural research: Research designed to compare and contrast people of different cultures

Culture: a system of enduring meanings, beliefs, values, assumptions, institutions, and practices shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

Evolutionary psychology: a subfield of psychology that uses the principles of evolution to understand human social behavior

Multicultural research: Research designed to examine racial and ethnic groups within cultures

Open science: movement to make research materials, methods, hypotheses, and data more transparent, accessible, and easily shared with researchers from other labs

Social brain hypothesis: primates-humans, evolved unusually large brains to manage their unusually complex social worlds

Social neuroscience: The study of how individuals think, feel, and behave in a social context

Social psychology: Scientific study of how individuals think, feel, and behave in a social context

CTQ Questions

1. What is the relationship between social psychology and common sense?

2. Consider the following situation: Lajuan does very poorly on an exam. If Lajuan is motivated by the need to feel good about himself (the self-esteem approach), what are some examples of what he could say to himself and others about his exam performance?

3. Eddie’s doctor recently told him that his cholesterol and blood pressure are too high and so he should consider some dietary and lifestyle changes. If this is fair advice and Eddie is motivated by the need for accuracy, which thoughts would he likely think, and which behaviors would he likely enact after this visit?

4. Why is it important for social psychologists to take culture into account when explaining human behavior?

5. How has online communication influenced research in social psychology?

6. Describe how sociology and social psychology vary in their preferred level of analysis when tackling questions of interest. Provide a question or topic that is most suitable for a sociologist and explore how that question or topic can be adjusted to be addressed by a social psychologist.

7. Discuss the impact of social belonging interventions on the academic success and long-term well-being of underrepresented students. 

8. How did the emergence of social psychology as an academic field during the early 20th century and its flourishing during World War II contribute to understanding and addressing the challenges posed by the war?

9. How have advancements in technology impacted the field of social psychology?

10. What is the open science movement in social psychology, and what do you believe are the most important ways it has influenced research practices?  Justify your response.

Chapter 2

Applied research: Research whose goal is to make applications to the world and contribute to the solution of social problems.

Basic research: Research whose goal is to increase the understanding of human behavior, often by testing hypotheses based on a theory.

Confederates: Accomplices of an experimenter who, in dealing with the real participants in an experiment, pretend to be ordinary participants

Confound: A factor other than the independent variable that varies between the conditions of an experiment, thereby calling into question what caused any effects on the dependent variable.

Construct validity: The extent to which the measures used in a study measure the variables they were designed to measure and the manipulations in an experiment manipulate the variables they were designed to manipulate.

Correlational research: Research designed to measure the association between variables that are not manipulated by the researcher.

Correlation coefficients: Statistical measures of the strength and direction of the association between two variables.

Debriefing: Statistical measures of the strength and direction of the association between two variables.

Deception: In the context of research, a method that provides false information to participants.

Dependent variables: In an experiment, factors that experimenters measure to see if it is affected by the independent variable.

Experimental realism: The degree to which experimental procedures are involving to participants and lead them to behave naturally and spontaneously.

Experimenter expectancy effects: The effects produced when experimenters’ expectations about the results of an experiment affect their behavior toward participants and thereby influence the participants’ responses.

Experiments: A form of research that can demonstrate causal relationships because (1) the experimenter has control over the events that occur and (2) participants are randomly assigned to conditions.

External validity: The degree to which there can be reasonable confidence that the results of a study would be obtained for other people and in other situations.

Hypothesis: A testable prediction about the conditions under which an event will occur

Independent variables: In an experiment, the factors that experimenters manipulate to see if it affects the dependent variable.

Informed consent: An individual’s deliberate, voluntary decision to participate in research, based on the researcher’s description of what will be required during such participation.

Internal validity: The degree to which there can be reasonable certainty that the independent variables in an experiment caused the effects obtained on the dependent variables.

Interrater reliability: The degree to which different observers agree on their observations.

Meta-analysis: A set of statistical procedures used to review a body of evidence by combining the results of individual studies to measure the overall reliability and strength of particular effects.

Mundane realism: The degree to which the experimental situation resembles places and events in the real world.

Operational definition: The specific procedures for manipulating or measuring a conceptual variable.

Preregistration: The practice of researchers reporting their research design, predictions, and plans for data analysis before conducting their study.

Random assignment: A method of assigning participants to the various conditions of an experiment so that each participant in the experiment has an equal chance of being in any of the conditions.

Random sampling: A method of selecting participants for a study so that everyone in a population has an equal chance of being in the study.

Replication Repeating: a research study to see if the results are similar to those found in the original study.

Statistically significant: Results are said to be statistically significant if analyses determine the probability that the results could have been achieved by random chance is sufficiently low; the most typical convention is that the probability must be less than 5 out of 100

Subject variables: Variables that characterize preexisting differences among the participants in a study.

Theory: An organized set of principles used to explain observed phenomena.

CTQ Questions:

1. What are some advantages and disadvantages associated with using surveys in social psychology research?

2. What is the difference between independent and dependent variables in an experimental study? Please provide an example of an independent and dependent variable in a hypothetical study and give an example hypothesis including these two variables.

3. Define and provide an example of experimenter expectancy effects.

4. What is the purpose of informed consent in research studies?

5. What is the role of the institutional review board in guiding the research at an institution?

6. Compare and contrast basic and applied research in social psychology, provide an example of each, and discuss how they contribute to our understanding of social behavior.

7. Compare the purposes of using the observational method, the correlational method, and the experimental method. Provide an example of a study that implements each method.

8. Describe the relationship between internal and external validity.

9. Bennet has found that when students at his university work together to solve difficult math problems, they often resolve the problems more quickly and accurately than those who work alone. However, Dr. Bennet wishes to replicate his findings to ensure their accuracy and to generalize that working together is more effective than working alone. Describe two different examples of how Dr. Bennet could try to replicate his findings, and discuss the benefits of both approaches.

10. What are some benefits and challenges of cross-cultural research in social psychology? Recall what you have learned from the text, but also infer additional challenges using your knowledge of research methods in psychology.

Chapter 3

Affective forecasting: The process of predicting how one would feel in response to future emotional events

Bask in reflected glory (BIRG): To increase self-esteem by associating with others who are successful.

Dialecticism: An Eastern system of thought that accepts the coexistence of contradictory characteristics within a single person.

Downward social comparison: The defensive tendency to compare ourselves with others who are worse off than we are.

Facial feedback hypothesis: The hypothesis that changes in facial expression can lead to corresponding changes in emotion.

Hierometer theory: The theory that self-esteem serves a gauge that monitors our social status and motivating status-optimizing behavior.

Overjustification effect: The tendency for intrinsic motivation to diminish for activities that have become associated with reward or other extrinsic factors

Private self-consciousness: A personality characteristic of individuals who are introspective, often attending to their own inner states.

Public self-consciousness: A personality characteristic of individuals who focus on themselves as social objects, as seen by others.

Self-awareness theory: A personality characteristic of individuals who focus on themselves as social objects, as seen by others.

Self-concept: The sum total of an individual’s beliefs about his or her own personal attributes.

Self-esteem: An affective component of the self, consisting of a person’s positive and negative self-evaluations.

Self-handicapping: Behaviors designed to sabotage one’s own performance in order to provide a subsequent excuse for failure.

Self-monitoring: The tendency to change behavior in response to the self-presentation concerns of the situation.

Self-perception theory: The theory that when internal cues are difficult to interpret, people gain self-insight by observing their own behavior.

Self-presentation: Strategies people use to shape what others think of them

Self-regulation: The process by which people control their thoughts, feelings, or behavior in order to achieve a personal or social goal.

Self-schemas: The beliefs people hold about themselves that guide the processing of self-relevant information.

Social comparison theory: The theory that people evaluate their own abilities and opinions by comparing themselves to others.

Sociometer theory: The theory that self-esteem is a gauge that monitors our social interactions and sends us signals as to whether our behavior is acceptable to others.

Terror management theory: The theory that humans cope with the fear of their own death by constructing worldviews that help to preserve their self-esteem

Two-factor theory of emotion: The theory that the experience of emotion is based on two factors: physiological arousal and a cognitive interpretation of that arousal.

CTW Questions

1. We sometimes engage in introspection, in which we reflect upon the reasons behind our attitudes or behaviors. In your opinion, what are some of the most problematic outcomes or effects that can arise from this process of introspection?

2. Describe how a self-perception theorist would explain how you come to decide whether you enjoyed your blind date.

3. Stanley Schachter’s two-factor theory of emotion is both a physiological and a social theory of emotion. How would you explain both facets?

4. Research indicates that cultural variations can impact individuals' self-concept. Using specific examples, describe how people from different cultures may possess distinct perspectives on how they perceive themselves.

5. Describe the basic principles of self-awareness theory and give examples of some cognitive and behavioral consequences of self-awareness. Do you believe high self-awareness is a desirable goal? Why or why not?

6. Design a study where you will test the facial feedback hypothesis. Please include the research question and details about the experimental design. What is the significance of this research?

7. Discuss the psychological processes and potential consequences of downward and upward social comparison. How do individuals engage in these types of comparisons, and what factors influence their choices? Support your argument with relevant examples.

8. Discuss the concept of self-regulation and its physical implications in our pursuit of personal ideals. How does self-regulation impact our ability to control our thoughts, urges, and behaviors? Explore the challenges and potential consequences of engaging in self-regulation and provide examples to support your argument.

9. Describe a scenario in which a person would use at least two different kinds of self-enhancement mechanisms. In your answer, define these techniques and explain their impact.

10. High self-monitoring abilities are often associated with an array of positive outcomes. What are some advantages to having high self-monitoring abilities? Are there any disadvantages? If so, explain.

Chapter 4

Attribution theory: A group of theories that describe how people explain the causes of behavior.

Availability heuristic: The tendency to estimate the likelihood that an event will occur by how easily instances of it come to mind.

Base-rate fallacy: The finding that people are relatively insensitive to consensus information presented in the form of numerical base rates.

Belief in a just world: The belief that individuals get what they deserve in life, an orientation that leads people to disparage victims.

Belief perseverance: The tendency to maintain beliefs even after they have been discredited.

Central traits: Traits that exert a powerful influence on overall impressions

Confirmation bias: The tendency to seek, interpret, and create information that verifies existing beliefs.

Counterfactual thinking: The tendency to imagine alternative events or outcomes that might have occurred but did not.

Covariation principle: A principle of attribution theory that holds that people attribute behavior to factors that are present when a behavior occurs and are absent when it does not.

False-consensus effect: The tendency for people to overestimate the extent to which others share their opinions, attributes, and behaviors.

Fundamental attribution error: The tendency to focus on the role of personal causes and underestimate the impact of situations on other people’s behavior.

Impression formation: The process of integrating information about a person to form a coherent impression.

Information integration theory: The theory that impressions are based on (1) perceiver dispositions and (2) a weighted average of a target person’s traits.

Mind perception: The process by which people attribute human-like mental states to various animate and inanimate objects, including other people.

Nonverbal behavior: Behavior that reveals a person’s feelings without words through facial expressions, body language, and vocal cues.

Personal attribution: Attribution to internal characteristics of an actor, such as ability, personality, mood, or effort.

Primacy effect: The tendency for information presented early in a sequence to have more impact on impressions than information presented later.

Priming: The tendency for recently used or perceived words or ideas to come to mind easily and influence the interpretation of new information.

Self-fulfilling prophecy: The process by which one’s expectations about a person eventually lead that person to behave in ways that confirm those expectations.

Situational attribution: Attribution to factors external to an actor, such as the task, other people, pressures, or luck.

Social cognition: The processes by which individuals perceive, interpret, think about, and form impressions of other people.

Stereotype content model: The finding that people form impressions of others along two dimensions: (1) warmth and (2) competence.

CTQ questions

1. Which factors contribute to forming a first impression, and how quickly are first impressions formed? What could you do to form a good first impression in a job interview?

2. Imagine traveling to a country where you don’t speak the native language. You just had a great meal. You don’t want to be misunderstood, so how can you communicate to your host that the meal was great, and that you’re happy? What nonverbal communication strategies would you avoid and why?

3. Fritz Heider proposed that there are two possible attributions a person can make about another’s behavior. Describe both of these types of attributions, and then provide an example of each type of attribution one could make about why someone is running late for a meeting.

4. Describe the role culture plays in the commission of the fundamental attribution error. How prevalent is this error across cultures, and why might differences in committing this error exist?

5. How does confirmation bias influence our perception and interpretation of information? Provide a brief example to illustrate your point.

6. Discuss Kelley's Covariation Theory and its implications for understanding the processes of attribution. Provide real-world examples to support your analysis.

7. Simon, who strongly believes in a just world, witnesses an incident of a robbery at a convenience store. In this situation, Simon mistakenly holds the belief that the victims must have done something to deserve being robbed, as they must have acted irresponsibly or made poor choices. Why would belief in a just world be a comfort to Simon, and how is this cognitive bias a problem?

8. Design a social psychology experiment where participants are primed to feel positively about a person they just met. What is the purpose of your research on priming?

9. How does the self-fulfilling prophecy shape individuals' behaviors and outcomes in interpersonal interactions? Give an example of a self-fulfilling prophecy to strengthen your argument.

10. Your textbook authors highlight four reasons why people should be cautiously optimistic about their competency with social perception. Rank them in importance and provide a rationale for your ranking.

Chapter 5

Ambivalent sexism: A form of sexism characterized by attitudes about women that reflect both negative, resentful beliefs and feelings and affectionate and chivalrous but potentially patronizing beliefs and feelings.

Contact hypothesis: The theory that direct contact between hostile groups will reduce intergroup prejudice under certain conditions.

Discrimination: Behavior directed against people based on their membership in certain groups.

Implicit racism: Racism that operates unconsciously and unintentionally

Ingroup favoritism: The tendency to discriminate in favor of ingroups over outgroups.

Ingroups: The tendency to discriminate in favor of ingroups over outgroups.

Outgroup homogeneity effect: The tendency to assume that there is greater similarity among members of outgroups than among members of ingroups.

Outgroups: Groups with which an individual does not feel a sense of membership, belonging, or identity.

Prejudice: Negative attitudes toward people based on their membership in certain groups.

Racism: Negative attitudes toward people based on their membership in certain groups.

Realistic conflict theory: The theory that hostility between groups is caused by direct competition for limited resources.

Sexism: Prejudice and discrimination based on a person’s gender, or institutional and cultural practices that promote the domination of one gender over another.

Social categorization: The classification of persons into groups on the basis of common attributes.

Social dominance orientation: A desire to see one’s ingroup as dominant over other groups and a willingness to adopt cultural values that facilitate oppression over other groups.

Social identity theory: The theory that people favor ingroups over outgroups in order to enhance their self-esteem.

Socialization: The processes by which people learn the norms, rules, and information of a culture or group.

Stereotypes: Beliefs or associations that link a whole group of people with certain traits or characteristics.

Stereotype threat: The experience of concern about being evaluated based on negative stereotypes about one’s group

Subliminal presentations: A method of presenting stimuli so faintly or rapidly that people do not have any conscious awareness of having been exposed to them.

Superordinate goals: Shared goals that can be achieved only through cooperation among individuals or groups.

System justification theory: A theory that proposes that people are motivated (at least in part) to defend and justify the existing social, political, and economic conditions.

CTQ Questions

1. What is the Implicit Association Test (IAT), and how does it work to identify implicit prejudices? What do you perceive is its biggest flaw?

2. Describe what is meant by the term ambivalent sexism. Then, give an example of each form.

3. What is social identity threat, why does it arise, and which consequences result from it? Provide an example.

4. Discuss the role of social categorization in the development of prejudice and discrimination, using either race, gender, or age as an example.

5. Describe a scenario that depicts realistic conflict theory, using different racial groups to highlight this concept.

6. Melissa is bombarded by very skewed, objectifying, and ultimately harmful portrayals of mostly white women on social media, which has negatively impacted her body satisfaction, self-esteem, and overall mental health. She has decided to write a letter to the CEOs of various social media sites to condemn their lack of intervention. Using the research findings mentioned in your textbook, what main points should Melissa include in her letter?

7. How do confirmation biases, self-fulfilling prophecies, attributions, and subtyping contribute to the persistence of stereotypes despite evidence that should discredit them? Pick three of these concepts and develop your own examples to support your argument.

8. Discuss the automatic activation of stereotypes and its impact on behavior and decision-making. How does awareness of stereotypes influence our thoughts, feelings, and actions towards members of different groups? Provide examples and consider factors that can affect the activation of stereotypes.

9. Imagine you have been asked to critique a standard bias and diversity training program at an educational institution. What might be some common flaws you would find? What approach for reducing prejudice and discrimination would you recommend instead?

10. List the basic requirements of the contact hypothesis that must be met in order for contact to reduce prejudice between two formerly hostile groups. Would you recommend this approach? Why or why not?