Japanese American Incarceration During World War II

Yoshiko Uchida and the Pearl Harbor Attack Yoshiko Uchida, a student at UC Berkeley, heard the news of the Pearl Harbor attack on December 7, 1941. Her father, an issei, was arrested by the FBI and labeled an "enemy alien," later sent to a camp in Montana. In 1942, the rest of the Uchida family was given short notice to leave their home and were labeled Family No. 13453 by the U.S. government. They were first sent to the Tanforan "Assembly Center" and then to the Topaz camp in Utah.

Early Life and Education

Yoshiko Uchida was born on November 24, 1921, in Alameda, California. She demonstrated a passion for writing from a young age, which she pursued despite facing numerous challenges due to her Japanese heritage. Uchida attended the University of California, Berkeley, where she studied English and History. Her academic pursuits were interrupted by the onset of World War II and the subsequent internment of Japanese Americans.

Life After Internment

After the war, Yoshiko Uchida resumed her writing career, focusing on stories that depicted the experiences of Japanese Americans. She aimed to provide insight into their culture, struggles, and contributions to American society. Uchida wrote numerous books for children and young adults, earning several awards and accolades for her work. Her notable works include "Desert Exile: The Uprooting of a Japanese American Family" and "Journey to Topaz," which draw heavily from her personal experiences during the internment.

Demographics of Japanese Residents On the eve of Pearl Harbor, there were $125,000$ Japanese in the continental United States, with over $80$ percent living in California, Oregon, and Washington. Canada had $23,000$ Japanese residents, $95$ percent of whom lived in British Columbia. In Peru, there were approximately $17,500$ Japanese, mainly in cities like Lima. In both the US and Canada, Japanese represented less than $0.1$ percent of the total population. ## Impact of Pearl Harbor After the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 8, 1941, Japanese Americans faced intense scrutiny. $120,000$ Japanese Americans, including U.S. citizens, were uprooted from their West Coast homes due to "military necessity." In Canada, $22,000$ Japanese Canadians were ordered to leave British Columbia for "Interior Housing Centres." Additionally, over $2,100$ Japanese Peruvians and other Japanese Latin Americans were arrested and incarcerated in U.S. camps as "enemy aliens."

Japanese individuals were not charged with specific acts but were incarcerated based on their ancestry in the name of national and hemispheric security. ## Government Surveillance Prior to the War In the years leading up to the war, Japanese Americans were under increased government surveillance. The 1940 Alien Registration Act required resident aliens over fourteen to register annually and provide fingerprints. The Office of Naval Intelligence and the FBI collected data on Japanese communities and created lists of individuals suspected of subversive activities. The definition of "subversive activity" was broad, encompassing most Japanese community organizations and even minimal contact with the Japanese government. Leaders of cultural organizations, language teachers, and Buddhist clergy were identified as "suspects" to be confined in case of war. By 1941, lists and camp designs were prepared. ## Loyalty and Evidence of Espionage There was evidence of Japanese government espionage through its consulates in the U.S., and nineteen Americans were arrested for being agents of Japan; all of them were white. Pro-Japan messages were spread by journalists and scholars, and some immigrants supported Japanese Empire victories. However, historian Greg Robinson argues this did not mean they would assist Japan against their own countries. U.S. government reports indicated the vast majority of Japanese Americans were loyal to the United States. Navy intelligence officer Kenneth Ringle stated in 1941 that "better than $90$ percent of the nisei and $75$ percent of the original immigrants were completely loyal to the United States." Curtis B. Munson reported to President Roosevelt that there was "no Japanese problem," noting that first-generation immigrants would eagerly become naturalized citizens if allowed, and second-generation nisei were $90$ to $98$ percent loyal. ## Pre-War Plans for Mass Removal Despite reports of loyalty, a contingent within the U.S. military proceeded with plans for mass removal of Japanese Americans, some introduced decades before Pearl Harbor. In Canada, skepticism about Japanese Canadian loyalty led to increased surveillance. In 1921, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police called for an investigation of espionage among Japanese Canadians. By September 1939, fear of Axis collaborators increased once Canada entered the war. In 1940, Prime Minister Mackenzie King appointed the Special Committee on Orientals in British Columbia to uncover subversive acts. In January 19