Introduction to International Relations Theories and Methodologies

Origins and Context of Modern International Relations

• Cold War Foundations: The contemporary international order emerged from a compromise between competing powers following World War II. This compromise resulted in the Cold War, where the United States allied with any nation willing to oppose communism and join the "Free World."

• The Free World and Globalization: The concept of the free world was built on the pillars of democracy and free trade. This initiative unintentionally sparked the process of globalization. While globalization has significant side effects, it facilitated continuous commercial relationships, cultural exchanges, and increased familiarity between different peoples.

• Shift in Diplomacy: Traditional diplomacy was historically conducted by high-level elites who ignored the general population. Modern international relations are characterized by global thinking and direct exchange between people in different countries, moving away from the state's total control over its population.

• Side Effects of Global Integration:

  • Public Health: The propagation of disease across borders.

  • Migration: "Voting with their feet," where individuals move based on lack of satisfaction in their home countries. This mass migration is a departure from traditional eras where states maintained strict control over well-defined populations.

• Great Power Politics: International relations was defined by the rise of the United States and Russia. Currently, China and Russia have formed a powerful front. This dynamic is explored in the book "The Tragedy of Great Power Politics," written by one of the founders of international relations theory. While some view the rise of superpowers like the US as a new phenomenon, historical precedents exist, such as the global influence of France and Britain in the $18\text{th}$ century.

The Three Fields of Political Science

Universities traditionally divide political science departments into three specific subfields:

• American Government: Regarded as a precise field focused on the study of domestic governance.

• International Relations: A field tied to diplomatic relations and the study of interactions between states.

• Comparative Politics: Often described as the "weak sister" of the three due to its lack of a precise definition. It encompasses political economy—comparing systems like socialism and capitalism—but remains a fuzzy and undefined area of study.

Primary Theories of International Relations

• Realism: This theory rose to prominence at the beginning of the Cold War in approximately $1945$. It views the world through the lens of power politics and the struggle for dominance.

• Liberalism: Gained importance as globalization expanded. It posits that human beings have a natural tendency to cooperate and can overcome the desire for conquest by perceiving the mutual benefits of cooperation. Even while acknowledging the underlying threat of violence and power, liberals point to successes like the relationship between France and Germany, where cultural appreciation has replaced historical hostility.

• Constructivism: A "late bloomer" that appeared in the late $1970\text{s}$ and grew in the $1980\text{s}$. It is a post-positivist approach that moves beyond power and cooperation to focus on how ideas and norms shape international relations.

Historical and Philosophical Methodology

• History as a Source: History serves as the raw material for building theories by identifying patterns. However, history is considered a poor predictor of the future because politicians often fail to learn from it, repeating mistakes in conflicts ranging from the Vietnam War to the Iraq war, Afghanistan, and Iran.

• Documentation of War:

  • Thucydides: A historian of ancient Greece who documented the wars involving Athens before the Christ era.

  • Cicero: Wrote about the Gallic wars of the Roman Empire and the rise of Julius Caesar.

  • Julius Caesar: Documented the Roman conquest of Europe. His transition from a general to an emperor serves as a primary example of political evolution.

• Philosophy and IR: Most historical philosophers focused on domestic politics rather than international relations:

  • Plato: Famous for advocating for the Republic.

  • Aristotle: Considered the father of the comparative method.

  • Thomas Hobbes: The "poster boy" for the necessity of government; he argued that without government to ensure peace within a nation, people would kill one another.

  • Immanuel Kant: The primary exception to the domestic focus. He is a fundamental philosopher of international relations, arguing that democracy is the remedy for war.

Scientific Methods and Behaviorism

• Behaviorism: The specific scientific approach often proposed in American political science. It assumes that political behavior can be studied scientifically by observing actions and inferring beliefs. For example, if a state consistently goes to war, behaviorists might infer that its elites prioritize military force over diplomacy.

• The Correlates of War Project: A University of Michigan project that uses statistical methods to find the origins of war. It utilizes "correlation" to relate variables.

  • Alliances: One hypothesis tests whether an increased number of alliances increases the probability of war.

  • Statistical Rule: In scientific methods, researchers cannot ignore cases that do not fit the established pattern, though some statisticians might improperly suggest doing so.

• Democratic Peace (Dyad Theory):

  • If two countries are both democracies ($\text{Dyad} = 2$ democracies), the theory posits the probability of war is $0\%$.

  • If one is a democracy and the other is not, the probability of war is approximately $50\%$.

  • If both are non-democratic, the probability rises toward $100\%$.

  • Example: The Fashoda Crisis in the $1840\text{s}$. British and French troops met in Egypt. Despite public calls for war, both nations were democracies and opted for a diplomatic resolution.

Positivism vs. Post-Positivism

• Positivism: A quantitative approach that believes in explanatory variables that can be measured and statistically related to results. It is associated with the "rise of reason."

• Post-Positivism: A critique of positivism (sometimes called the "revolt against reason") that argues qualitative methods are equally important. It focuses on identifying factors rather than just measuring variables.

• Social Solidarity Theory: A qualitative example comparing welfare systems. The intensity of social solidarity (empathy for the poor) determines the extent of welfare. In America, solidarity is often low because poverty is viewed as a personal failure (Intensity = $1$). In France (Intensity = $2$) or Sweden (Intensity = $3$), social solidarity is higher, leading to more robust welfare spending.

• Feminism in IR: A post-positivist approach that analyzes the specific impact of war on women. Historically, when men left for wars like World War I for durations of $4$ years, women assumed all household and societal responsibilities. Feminism highlights that women are the primary survivors and victims of war, bearing the brunt of displacement, rape, and the burden of supporting families as widows or caregivers for the disabled.

Constructivism and Normative Frameworks

• Core Assumption: Ideas generate norms, and these norms regulate international behavior.

• Human Rights: The idea that all humans are equal in rights, originally derived from religious beliefs that everyone is eligible for salvation. This idea transformed into international norms like the Geneva Convention, which defines specific actions as war crimes even during active combat.

Historical Diplomacy: The Case of Talleyrand

• Context: During the Napoleonic Wars, Napoleon’s aggressive behavior and conquest of Europe made France a hated nation. This hatred persisted for generations; for example, a French intern in the Netherlands seeking a room at the International Council of Justice might still face rejection based on the memory of Napoleon.

• The Treaty of 1815: Following the Battle of Waterloo, the conquered European nations intended to partition and divide France.

• Diplomatic Strategy: Talleyrand, Napoleon's foreign minister, used diplomatic ability to salvage France. He presented a behavioral shift—showing respect and a willingness to conform—shifting from a realist stance of power to a liberal stance of negotiation and conformity to international norms.