everything so far :D

CHAPTER 1

abdominopelvic cavity

division of the anterior (ventral) cavity that houses the abdominal and pelvic viscera

anabolism

assembly of more complex molecules from simpler molecules

anatomical position

standard reference position used for describing locations and directions on the human body

anatomy

science that studies the form and composition of the body’s structures

anterior

describes the front or direction toward the front of the body; also referred to as ventral

anterior cavity

larger body cavity located anterior to the posterior (dorsal) body cavity; includes the serous membrane-lined pleural cavities for the lungs, pericardial cavity for the heart, and peritoneal cavity for the abdominal and pelvic organs; also referred to as ventral cavity

catabolism

breaking down of more complex molecules into simpler molecules

caudal

describes a position below or lower than another part of the body proper; near or toward the tail (in humans, the coccyx, or lowest part of the spinal column); also referred to as inferior

cell

smallest independently functioning unit of all organisms; in animals, a cell contains cytoplasm, composed of fluid and organelles

control center

compares values to their normal range; deviations cause the activation of an effector

cranial

describes a position above or higher than another part of the body proper; also referred to as superior

cranial cavity

division of the posterior (dorsal) cavity that houses the brain

deep

describes a position farther from the surface of the body

differentiation

process by which unspecialized cells become specialized in structure and function

distal

describes a position farther from the point of attachment or the trunk of the body

dorsal

describes the back or direction toward the back of the body; also referred to as posterior

dorsal cavity

posterior body cavity that houses the brain and spinal cord; also referred to the posterior body cavity

effector

organ that can cause a change in a value

frontal plane

two-dimensional, vertical plane that divides the body or organ into anterior and posterior portions

gross anatomy

study of the larger structures of the body, typically with the unaided eye; also referred to macroscopic anatomy

homeostasis

steady state of body systems that living organisms maintain

inferior

describes a position below or lower than another part of the body proper; near or toward the tail (in humans, the coccyx, or lowest part of the spinal column); also referred to as caudal

lateral

describes the side or direction toward the side of the body

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

medical imaging technique in which a device generates a magnetic field to obtain detailed sectional images of the internal structures of the body

medial

describes the middle or direction toward the middle of the body

metabolism

sum of all of the body’s chemical reactions

microscopic anatomy

study of very small structures of the body using magnification

negative feedback

homeostatic mechanism that tends to stabilize an upset in the body’s physiological condition by preventing an excessive response to a stimulus, typically as the stimulus is removed

normal range

range of values around the set point that do not cause a reaction by the control center

organ

functionally distinct structure composed of two or more types of tissues

organ system

group of organs that work together to carry out a particular function

organism

living being that has a cellular structure and that can independently perform all physiologic functions necessary for life

pericardium

sac that encloses the heart

peritoneum

serous membrane that lines the abdominopelvic cavity and covers the organs found there

physiology

science that studies the chemistry, biochemistry, and physics of the body’s functions

pleura

serous membrane that lines the pleural cavity and covers the lungs

positive feedback

mechanism that intensifies a change in the body’s physiological condition in response to a stimulus

positron emission tomography (PET)

medical imaging technique in which radiopharmaceuticals are traced to reveal metabolic and physiological functions in tissues

posterior

describes the back or direction toward the back of the body; also referred to as dorsal

posterior cavity

posterior body cavity that houses the brain and spinal cord; also referred to as dorsal cavity

proximal

describes a position nearer to the point of attachment or the trunk of the body

regional anatomy

study of the structures that contribute to specific body regions

reproduction

process by which new organisms are generated

responsiveness

ability of an organisms or a system to adjust to changes in conditions

sagittal plane

two-dimensional, vertical plane that divides the body or organ into right and left sides

sensor

(also, receptor) reports a monitored physiological value to the control center

serosa

membrane that covers organs and reduces friction; also referred to as serous membrane

serous membrane

membrane that covers organs and reduces friction; also referred to as serosa

set point

ideal value for a physiological parameter; the level or small range within which a physiological parameter such as blood pressure is stable and optimally healthful, that is, within its parameters of homeostasis

spinal cavity

division of the dorsal cavity that houses the spinal cord; also referred to as vertebral cavity

superficial

describes a position nearer to the surface of the body

superior

describes a position above or higher than another part of the body proper; also referred to as cranial

systemic anatomy

study of the structures that contribute to specific body systems

thoracic cavity

division of the anterior (ventral) cavity that houses the heart, lungs, esophagus, and trachea

tissue

group of similar or closely related cells that act together to perform a specific function

transverse plane

two-dimensional, horizontal plane that divides the body or organ into superior and inferior portions

ultrasonography

application of ultrasonic waves to visualize subcutaneous body structures such as tendons and organs

ventral

describes the front or direction toward the front of the body; also referred to as anterior

ventral cavity

larger body cavity located anterior to the posterior (dorsal) body cavity; includes the serous membrane-lined pleural cavities for the lungs, pericardial cavity for the heart, and peritoneal cavity for the abdominal and pelvic organs; also referred to as anterior body cavity

  • The cranial region includes the upper part of the head while the

  • Head area of the human body is called the cephalic

  • The forehead is referred to as the frontal region.

  • The eyes are referred to as the orbital or ocular region.

  • The cheeks are referred to as the buccal region.

  • The ears are referred to as the auricle or otic region.

  • The nose is referred to as the nasal region.

  • The mouth is referred to as the oral region.

  • The chin is referred to as the mental region.

  • The neck is referred to as the cervical region.

  • The back of the head is referred to as the occipital region.

The trunk of the body contains, from superior to inferior,

The pelvis and legs contain, from superior to inferior,

  • the inguinal or groin region between the thigh and the abdomen,

  • the pubic region surrounding the genitals,

  • the femoral region encompassing the thighs,

  • the patellar region encompassing the front of the knee,

  • the crural region encompassing the lower leg, between the knee and ankle,

  • the fibular region encompassing the outside of the lower leg,

  • the tarsal region encompassing the ankle,

  • the pedal/pes region encompassing the foot

  • the digital/phalangeal region encompassing the toes.

  • The great toe is referred to as the hallux.

The regions of the upper limbs, from superior to inferior, are

  • the axillary region encompassing the armpit,

  • the brachial region encompassing the upper arm,

  • the antecubital region encompassing the front of the elbow,

  • the antebrachial region encompassing the forearm,

  • the carpal region encompassing the wrist,

  • the palmar region encompassing the palm,

  • the digital/phalangeal region encompassing the fingers.

  • The thumb is referred to as the pollex.

The posterior view contains, from superior to inferior,

  • the cervical region encompassing the neck

  • the dorsal region encompassing the upper back

  • the lumbar region encompassing the lower back.

  • the sacral region occurring at the end of the spine, directly above the buttocks.

The regions of the back of the arms, from superior to inferior, include

  • the cervical region encompassing the neck,

  • the acromial region encompassing the shoulder,

  • the brachial region encompassing the upper arm,

  • the olecranal region encompassing the back of the elbow,

  • the antebrachial region encompasses the forearm, front and back

  • and the manual or manus region encompassing the back of the hand.

The posterior regions of the legs, from superior to inferior, include

  • the gluteal region encompassing the buttocks,

  • the femoral region encompassing the thigh,

  • the popliteal region encompassing the back of the knee,

  • the sural region encompassing the back of the lower leg,

  • the calcaneal region encompassing the heel,

  • the plantar region encompassing the sole of the foot.

CHAPTER 2

acid

compound that releases hydrogen ions (H+) in solution

activation energy

amount of energy greater than the energy contained in the reactants, which must be overcome for a reaction to proceed

adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

nucleotide containing ribose and an adenine base that is essential in energy transfer

amino acid

building block of proteins; characterized by an amino and carboxyl functional groups and a variable side-chain

anion

atom with a negative charge

atom

smallest unit of an element that retains the unique properties of that element

atomic number

number of protons in the nucleus of an atom

base

compound that accepts hydrogen ions (H+) in solution

buffer

solution containing a weak acid or a weak base that opposes wide fluctuations in the pH of body fluids

carbohydrate

class of organic compounds built from sugars, molecules containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1-2-1 ratio

catalyst

substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself being changed in the process

cation

atom with a positive charge

compound

substance composed of two or more different elements joined by chemical bonds

concentration

number of particles within a given space

covalent bond

chemical bond in which two atoms share electrons, thereby completing their valence shells

decomposition reaction

type of catabolic reaction in which one or more bonds within a larger molecule are broken, resulting in the release of smaller molecules or atoms

denaturation

change in the structure of a molecule through physical or chemical means

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

deoxyribose-containing nucleotide that stores genetic information

disaccharide

pair of carbohydrate monomers bonded by dehydration synthesis via a glycosidic bond

disulfide bond

covalent bond formed within a polypeptide between sulfide groups of sulfur-containing amino acids, for example, cysteine

electron

subatomic particle having a negative charge and nearly no mass; found orbiting the atom’s nucleus

electron shell

area of space a given distance from an atom’s nucleus in which electrons are grouped

element

substance that cannot be created or broken down by ordinary chemical means

enzyme

protein or RNA that catalyzes chemical reactions

exchange reaction

type of chemical reaction in which bonds are both formed and broken, resulting in the transfer of components

functional group

group of atoms linked by strong covalent bonds that tends to behave as a distinct unit in chemical reactions with other atoms

hydrogen bond

dipole-dipole bond in which a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to an electronegative atom is weakly attracted to a second electronegative atom

inorganic compound

substance that does not contain both carbon and hydrogen

ion

atom with an overall positive or negative charge

ionic bond

attraction between an anion and a cation

isotope

one of the variations of an element in which the number of neutrons differ from each other

kinetic energy

energy that matter possesses because of its motion

lipid

class of nonpolar organic compounds built from hydrocarbons and distinguished by the fact that they are not soluble in water

macromolecule

large molecule formed by covalent bonding

mass number

sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom

matter

physical substance; that which occupies space and has mass

molecule

two or more atoms covalently bonded together

monosaccharide

monomer of carbohydrate; also known as a simple sugar

neutron

heavy subatomic particle having no electrical charge and found in the atom’s nucleus

nucleotide

class of organic compounds composed of one or more phosphate groups, a pentose sugar, and a base

organic compound

substance that contains both carbon and hydrogen

peptide bond

covalent bond formed by dehydration synthesis between two amino acids

pH

negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion (H+) concentration of a solution

phospholipid

a lipid compound in which a phosphate group is combined with a diglyceride

phosphorylation

addition of one or more phosphate groups to an organic compound

polar molecule

molecule with regions that have opposite charges resulting from uneven numbers of electrons in the nuclei of the atoms participating in the covalent bond

polysaccharide

compound consisting of more than two carbohydrate monomers bonded by dehydration synthesis via glycosidic bonds

potential energy

stored energy matter possesses because of the positioning or structure of its components

protein

class of organic compounds that are composed of many amino acids linked together by peptide bonds

proton

heavy subatomic particle having a positive charge and found in the atom’s nucleus

purine

nitrogen-containing base with a double ring structure; adenine and guanine

pyrimidine

nitrogen-containing base with a single ring structure; cytosine, thiamine, and uracil

radioactive isotope

unstable, heavy isotope that gives off subatomic particles, or electromagnetic energy, as it decays; also called radioisotopes

ribonucleic acid (RNA)

ribose-containing nucleotide that helps manifest the genetic code as protein

solution

homogeneous liquid mixture in which a solute is dissolved into molecules within a solvent

steroid

(also, sterol) lipid compound composed of four hydrocarbon rings bonded to a variety of other atoms and molecules

substrate

reactant in an enzymatic reaction

suspension

liquid mixture in which particles distributed in the liquid settle out over time

synthesis reaction

type of anabolic reaction in which two or more atoms or molecules bond, resulting in the formation of a larger molecule

triglyceride

lipid compound composed of a glycerol molecule bonded with three fatty acid chains

valence shell

outermost electron shell of an atom

Organic Compounds Overview

Proteins:

  • Composition: Made of amino acids.

  • Functional Importance: Perform various roles such as structural support, transport, enzymes, and signaling.

Carbohydrates:

  • Composition: Composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio.

  • Monomers: Monosaccharides (e.g., glucose, fructose).

  • Functional Importance: Provide energy and serve as structural components in cells.

Lipids:

  • Composition: Hydrophobic organic compounds, including fats and oils, phospholipids, and steroids.

  • Monomers: Glycerol and fatty acids.

  • Functional Importance: Store energy, provide insulation, and make up cell membranes.

Nucleic Acids:

  • Composition: Polymers made of nucleotide monomers.

  • Functional Importance: Essential for storing and transmitting genetic information (DNA and RNA).

CHAPTER 3

active transport

form of transport across the cell membrane that requires input of cellular energy

anaphase

third stage of mitosis (and meiosis), during which sister chromatids separate into two new nuclear regions of a dividing cell

autolysis

breakdown of cells by their own enzymatic action

autophagy

lysosomal breakdown of a cell’s own components

cell cycle

life cycle of a single cell, from its birth until its division into two new daughter cells

cell membrane

membrane surrounding all animal cells, composed of a lipid bilayer interspersed with various molecules; also known as plasma membrane

centriole

small, self-replicating organelle that provides the origin for microtubule growth and moves DNA during cell division

centromere

region of attachment for two sister chromatids

centrosome

cellular structure that organizes microtubules during cell division/two centrioles at right angles of each other

channel protein

membrane-spanning protein that has an inner pore which allows the passage of one or more substances

Term: G1 Phase
Definition: First phase of the cell cycle where the cell grows and prepares for DNA synthesis.


Term: G2 Phase
Definition: Third phase of the cell cycle where the cell continues to grow and prepare for mitosis.


Term: Metaphase Checkpoint
Definition: Checkpoint to ensure chromosomes are aligned properly before separation during mitosis.

chromatin

substance consisting of DNA and associated proteins

chromosome

condensed version of chromatin

cilia

small hair-like appendage on certain cells formed by microtubules and modified for movement of materials across the cellular surface

cleavage furrow

contractile ring that forms around a cell during cytokinesis that pinches the cell into two halves

codon

consecutive sequence of three nucleotides on an mRNA molecule that corresponds to a specific amino acid

concentration gradient

difference in the concentration of a substance between two regions

cyclin

one of a group of proteins that function in the progression of the cell cycle

cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK)

one of a group of enzymes associated with cyclins that help them perform their functions

cytokinesis

final stage in cell division, where the cytoplasm divides to form two separate daughter cells

cytoplasm

internal material between the cell membrane and nucleus of a cell, mainly consisting of a water-based fluid called cytosol, within which are all the other organelles and cellular solute and suspended materials

cytoskeleton

“skeleton” of a cell; formed by rod-like proteins that support the cell’s shape and provide, among other functions, locomotive abilities

cytosol

clear, semi-fluid medium of the cytoplasm, made up mostly of water, with dissolved substances

diffusion

movement of a substance from an area of higher concentration to one of lower concentration

diploid

condition marked by the presence of a double complement of genetic material (two sets of chromosomes, one set inherited from each of two parents)

DNA polymerase

enzyme that functions in adding new nucleotides to a growing strand of DNA during DNA replication

Random Alignment
Definition: The process during metaphase of meiosis I, where homologous chromosomes align randomly along the metaphase plate. This leads to genetic diversity because the maternal and paternal chromosomes are assorted independently into gametes.

Crossing Over
Definition: The process during prophase I of meiosis where homologous chromosomes exchange segments of their genetic material. This results in genetic recombination, contributing to genetic diversity in offspring.

DNA replication

process of duplicating a molecule of DNA

endocytosis

import of material into the cell by formation of a membrane-bound vesicle

endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

cellular organelle that consists of interconnected membrane-bound tubules, which may or may not be associated with ribosomes (rough type or smooth type, respectively)

exocytosis

export of a substance out of a cell by formation of a membrane-bound vesicle

exon

one of the coding regions of an mRNA molecule that remain after splicing

extracellular fluid (ECF)

fluid exterior to cells; includes the interstitial fluid, blood plasma, and fluid found in other reservoirs in the body

facilitated diffusion

diffusion of a substance with the aid of a membrane protein

flagellum

appendage on certain cells formed by microtubules and modified for movement

G0 phase

phase of the cell cycle, usually entered from the G1 phase; characterized by long or permanent periods where the cell does not move forward into the DNA synthesis phase

G1 phase

first phase of the cell cycle, after a new cell is born, cell growth

G2 phase

third phase of the cell cycle, after the DNA synthesis phase, organelles and proteins made in preparation for mitosis

gene

functional length of DNA that provides the genetic information necessary to build a protein

gene expression

active interpretation of the information coded in a gene to produce a functional gene product

genome

entire complement of an organism’s DNA; found within virtually every cell

glycocalyx

coating of sugar molecules that surrounds the cell membrane

glycoprotein

protein that has one or more carbohydrates attached

Golgi apparatus

cellular organelle formed by a series of flattened, membrane-bound sacs that functions in protein modification, tagging, packaging, and transport

helicase

enzyme that functions to separate the two DNA strands of a double helix during DNA replication

histone

family of proteins that associate with DNA in the nucleus to form chromatin

homologous

describes two copies of the same chromosome (not identical), one inherited from each parent

hydrophilic

describes a substance or structure attracted to water

hydrophobic

describes a substance or structure repelled by water

hypertonic

describes an outside solution concentration that is higher than the cell concentration

hypotonic

describes a outside solution concentration that is lower than the cell concentration

integral protein

membrane-associated protein that spans the entire width of the lipid bilayer

intermediate filament

type of cytoskeletal filament made of keratin, characterized by an intermediate thickness, and playing a role in resisting cellular tension

interphase

entire life cycle of a cell, excluding mitosis

intracellular fluid (ICF)

fluid in the cytosol of cells

isotonic

describes a solution concentration that is the same as a reference concentration

kinetochore

region of a centromere where microtubules attach to a pair of sister chromatids

ligand

molecule that binds with specificity to a specific receptor molecule

lysosome

membrane-bound cellular organelle originating from the Golgi apparatus and containing digestive enzymes

messenger RNA (mRNA)

nucleotide molecule that serves as an intermediate in the genetic code between DNA and protein

metaphase

second stage of mitosis (and meiosis), characterized by the linear alignment of sister chromatids in the center of the cell

metaphase plate

linear alignment of sister chromatids in the center of the cell, which takes place during metaphase

microfilament

the thinnest of the cytoskeletal filaments; composed of actin subunits that function in muscle contraction and cellular structural support

microtubule

the thickest of the cytoskeletal filaments, composed of tubulin subunits that function in cellular movement and structural support

Microvilli
Definition: Small, finger-like projections on the surface of some cells, particularly epithelial cells, that increase the surface area for absorption or secretion. They are made up of actin filaments and are often found in the small intestine and kidneys.

mitochondrion

one of the cellular organelles bound by a double lipid bilayer that function primarily in the production of cellular energy (ATP)

mitosis

division of genetic material, during which the cell nucleus breaks down and two new, fully functional, nuclei are formed

mitotic phase

phase of the cell cycle in which a cell undergoes mitosis

mitotic spindle

network of microtubules, originating from centrioles, that arranges and pulls apart chromosomes during mitosis

multipotent

describes the condition of being able to differentiate into different types of cells within a given cell lineage or small number of lineages, such as a red blood cell or white blood cell

mutation

change in the nucleotide sequence in a gene within a cell’s DNA

nuclear envelope

membrane that surrounds the nucleus; consisting of a double lipid-bilayer

nuclear pore

one of the small, protein-lined openings found scattered throughout the nuclear envelope

nucleolus

small region of the nucleus where ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is synthesized and ribosomes are partially assembled.

nucleosome

unit of chromatin consisting of a DNA strand wrapped around histone proteins

nucleus

cell’s central organelle; contains the cell’s DNA

organelle

any of several different types of membrane-enclosed specialized structures in the cell that perform specific functions for the cell

osmosis

diffusion of water molecules down their concentration gradient across a selectively permeable membrane, low-high

passive transport

form of transport across the cell membrane that does not require input of cellular energy

peripheral protein

membrane-associated protein that does not span the width of the lipid bilayer, but is attached peripherally to integral proteins, membrane lipids, or other components of the membrane

peroxisome

membrane-bound organelle that contains enzymes (catalase) primarily responsible for detoxifying harmful substances

phagocytosis

endocytosis of large particles

pinocytosis

endocytosis of fluid

polypeptide

chain of amino acids linked by peptide bonds

promoter

region of DNA that signals transcription to begin at that site within the gene

prophase

first stage of mitosis (and meiosis), characterized by breakdown of the nuclear envelope and condensing of the chromatin to form chromosomes

receptor

protein molecule that contains a binding site for another specific molecule (called a ligand)

receptor-mediated endocytosis

endocytosis of ligands attached to membrane-bound receptors

ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

RNA that makes up the subunits of a ribosome

ribosome

cellular organelle that functions in protein synthesis

RNA polymerase

enzyme that unwinds DNA and then adds new nucleotides to a growing strand of RNA for the transcription phase of protein synthesis

S phase

stage of the cell cycle during which DNA replication occurs

selective permeability

feature of any barrier that allows certain substances to cross but excludes others

sister chromatid

one of a pair of identical chromosomes, formed during DNA replication

sodium-potassium pump

(also, Na+/K+ ATP-ase) membrane-embedded protein pump that uses ATP to move Na+ out of a cell and K+ into the cell

somatic cell

all cells of the body excluding gamete cells

stem cell

cell that is oligo-, multi-, or pleuripotent that has the ability to produce additional stem cells rather than becoming further specialized

telophase

final stage of mitosis (and meiosis), preceding cytokinesis, characterized by the formation of two new daughter nuclei

transcription

process of producing an mRNA molecule that is complementary to a particular gene of DNA

transcription factor

one of the proteins that regulate the transcription of genes

transfer RNA (tRNA)

molecules of RNA that serve to bring amino acids to a growing polypeptide strand and properly place them into the sequence

translation

process of producing a protein from the nucleotide sequence code of an mRNA transcript

vesicle

membrane-bound structure that contains materials within or outside of the cell

Nondisjunction, Trisomy, and Monosomy
Definition: Nondisjunction is the failure of chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate properly during meiosis or mitosis, resulting in an abnormal chromosome number in the offspring.

  • Trisomy: A condition where an individual has three copies of a particular chromosome (e.g., Down syndrome – trisomy 21).

  • Monosomy: A condition where an individual has only one copy of a particular chromosome (e.g., Turner syndrome – monosomy X).

Mitosis vs. Meiosis
Definition: Both are processes of cell division, but they have distinct purposes and outcomes.

  • Mitosis:

    • Purpose: Growth, repair, and asexual reproduction

    • Outcome: 2 identical daughter cells (diploid)

    • Number of divisions: 1

    • Chromosome number: Same as the parent cell

    • Occurs in somatic cells

  • Meiosis:

    • Purpose: Production of gametes (sperm and eggs) for sexual reproduction

    • Outcome: 4 genetically different daughter cells (haploid)

    • Number of divisions: 2 (meiosis I and meiosis II)

    • Chromosome number: Half the chromosome number of the parent cell

    • Occurs in germ cells