A8: A Divided Union: Civil Rights in the USA (1945-1974)

McCarthyism and the Red Scare

• Reasons for the Red Scare: Fear of communism spreading and threatening the American Dream.
  • Events like Czechoslovakia becoming communist (1948), the Berlin Blockade (1948-49), Russia developing the atom bomb (1949), and China becoming communist (1949) heightened these fears.
• Truman's Response:
  • Marshall Plan: Aid to European countries to rebuild economies and resist communism.
  • Truman Doctrine: Support to any country threatened by communist takeover (e.g., $400 million to Turkey).
• Key Cases:
  • Alger Hiss Trial (1950): Government official convicted of being a communist.
  • Rosenberg Case (1950-53): Julius and Ethel Rosenberg executed for giving atomic secrets to the Soviet Union.
• HUAC and the Hollywood Ten:
  • The House of Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) investigated the film industry, education, and government.
  • The Hollywood Ten were sacked and imprisoned for alleged communist messaging in films.
• McCarthy's Role:
  • Senator Joe McCarthy claimed to have a list of communists in government.
  • He lacked evidence but used fear to gain support.
• Decline of McCarthyism:
  • McCarthy lost support due to lack of evidence, bullying behavior on TV, and accusations against army officers.
• Effects of McCarthyism:
  • People lost jobs and were imprisoned based on accusations.
  • Liberal views were labeled as un-American.
  • America’s reputation was damaged.

Civil Rights in the 1950s

• Brown vs. Topeka (1954):
  • Supreme Court ruled segregation in schools illegal, mandating integration.
  • Southern states often ignored the ruling.
• Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955):
  • Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat, leading to a 13-month boycott organized by Martin Luther King.
  • The Supreme Court ruled segregation on buses illegal (1956).
  • It demonstrated the organizational power of black Americans and the effectiveness of peaceful protest and led to the rise of Martin Luther King.
• Little Rock High School (1957):
  • Nine black students faced state troops and violent mobs when trying to attend an all-white school.
  • President Eisenhower sent federal troops to protect the students.
  • Showed presidential support for civil rights and garnered worldwide publicity.

The Impact of Martin Luther King & Black Power

• Martin Luther King's Importance:
  • Advocated peaceful protest (speeches, marches, sit-ins).
  • Effectively raised awareness within Congress due to his peaceful approach.
• Civil Rights in the Early 1960s:
  • Freedom Riders (1960s): Challenged segregation on interstate buses, facing violence.
  • Sit-ins (1960): Peaceful protests at whites-only cafes, met with violence.
  • Washington Peace March (1963): 250,000+ people marched for civil rights; King's "I have a dream" speech.
  • Birmingham Peace March (1963): Protests against segregation, met with police violence; led to Civil Rights Bill.
• Voting Rights Act (1965):
  • Established national literacy tests for blacks & whites registering to vote.
  • Previous education discrimination caused many blacks to fail.
• Black Power Movement:
  • Key Ideas: Black control in communities, rejection of non-violent tactics, focus on socio-economic issues, black pride and separatism.
• Reasons for Development:
  • Frustration with slow pace of change.
  • Continued poverty and discrimination.
  • Irrelevance of King's approach in the North.
  • Humiliation with non-violent campaigns.
• Key Figures and Groups:
  • Nation of Islam: Militant approach, separate black state.
  • Malcolm X: Promoted black responsibility and pride; views evolved after Hajj.
  • Black Panthers: Used armed patrols against police brutality.
  • Stokely Carmichael: Coined "Black Power," radicalized SNCC.
• Changes in King's Campaign (Late 1960s):
  • Focused on poverty, wages, and jobs in northern cities.
  • Opposed Vietnam War.
  • Lost influence due to difficulties in solving socio-economic issues.
• Achievements of the Civil Rights Movement:
  • End of segregation in public places.
  • Increased school integration.
  • More black voters.
  • Successful black figures in politics and arts.
• However:
  • Socio-economic disparities persist.
  • Ghettos remain.
  • Deep racial divisions continue.

Protest Movements: Student and Women

• Women's Movement:
  • Reasons: New roles after WW2, the contraceptive pill, reaction against 1950s ideals, education, and Betty Friedan's "The Feminine Mystique."
  • Goals: Equal pay, equal job opportunities, childcare, and action against sexism.
  • Methods: Marches, petitions, demonstrations; radical feminists protested male supremacy; abortion rights.
  • Achievements: Equal Pay Act (1963), Civil Rights Act (1964), Education Amendment Act (1972), Roe vs. Wade (1973).
• Student Movement:
  • Background: Rebellious youth culture (Elvis, James Dean), Beatniks, generation gap, rejection of materialism, sex, drugs, and rock and roll.
  • Reasons: Desire for freedom, the contraceptive pill, recreational drugs, protest music (Bob Dylan), college enrollment, Civil Rights Movement influence, and opposition to the Vietnam War.
  • Methods: Students for a Democratic Society (SDS), civil rights campaigns, anti-Vietnam War protests, clashes with police (Kent State), radical groups (Weathermen), and the hippy movement.
  • Importance: Changes in youth culture, impact on Vietnam policy, publicity for racism, and generational shock.

Nixon and the Watergate Scandal

• Reason: Attempt to bug Democrat Party offices in the Watergate building.
• Key Features:
  • Nixon denied White House involvement but authorized payments to the arrested men.
  • The Senate investigation led to resignations.
  • Tapes revealed Nixon's attitudes and language.
  • Impeachment proceedings led to Nixon's resignation in 1974.
• Effects:
  • Damaged trust in US presidents.
  • Advisors imprisoned.
  • Reduced presidential powers and Congress limiting contributions to presidential campaign funds.