Psychology of Motivation, Emotion, Sexuality, and Gender
Chapter 10 Motivation and Emotion
MODULE 29 - Explaining Motivation: How does motivation direct and energize behavior?
Motivation Defined: Factors that direct and energize the behavior of humans and other organisms.
Encompasses behavioral, cognitive, and social aspects.
Studied through diverse approaches, all aiming to explain the energy guiding behavior in specific directions.
Instinct Approaches: Born to be Motivated
Instincts: Inborn patterns of behavior; biologically determined rather than learned.
Instinct Approaches to Motivation: Propose that people and animals are preprogrammed with behaviors essential for survival.
Weaknesses:
Lack of consensus on the number of primary instincts.
Fails to explain why certain behaviors evolve in some species but not others.
Drive-Reduction Approaches: Satisfying Our Needs
Suggest that a lack of a basic biological need creates a drive to fulfill that need.
Drive: Motivational tension or arousal that energizes behavior to satisfy a need.
Primary drives: Related to biological needs of the body or species (e.g., hunger, thirst).
Secondary drives: Related to behaviors that fulfill no obvious biological need but are learned (e.g., need for money).
Homeostasis: The body's natural tendency to maintain a steady internal state.
Underlies primary drives.
Operates via feedback loops.
Examples include the need for food, water, stable body temperature, and sleep.
Arousal Approaches: Beyond Drive Reduction
Propose that individuals strive to maintain an optimal, steady level of stimulation and activity.
If stimulation levels are too high, people try to reduce them.
If stimulation levels are too low, people seek out stimulation to increase them.
Individual differences exist in optimal arousal levels; some, like daredevil sportsmen, high-stakes gamblers, and criminals, seek exceptionally high levels.
Incentive Approaches: Motivation's Pull
Suggest that motivation arises from the desire to achieve external rewards, known as incentives.
Limitations: Does not fully explain motivation, as organisms sometimes fulfill needs without clear external incentives.
Combination Explanation: Internal drives (from drive-reduction theory) and external incentives (from incentive theory) work together to "push" and "pull" behavior.
Cognitive Approaches: The Thoughts Behind Motivation
Propose that motivation is influenced by people's thoughts, beliefs, expectations, and goals.
Distinguishes between:
Intrinsic motivation: Engaging in an activity for personal enjoyment, without external rewards.
Extrinsic motivation: Performing an activity to obtain a concrete, external reward (e.g., money, good grades).
Maslow's Hierarchy: Ordering Motivational Needs
Abraham Maslow's theory places motivational needs in a hierarchical structure.
Argues that lower-level, primary needs must be satisfied before higher-order, sophisticated needs can be addressed.
Self-actualization: The highest state of self-fulfillment, where individuals realize their full potential in unique ways.
Significance of Maslow's Hierarchy:
Highlights the complexity of human needs.
Emphasizes that basic biological needs take precedence over higher-order needs.
Inspired other theories, such as self-determination theory, which posits three basic needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness.
Weakness: Research has not been able to validate the specific order of Maslow's hierarchy.
Major Approaches to Motivation (Summary):
Instinct
Drive reduction
Arousal
Incentive
Cognitive
Hierarchy of needs
MODULE 30 - Human Needs and Motivation: Eat, Drink, and Be Daring
The Motivation Behind Hunger and Eating
Obesity: Body weight more than above the average weight for a person of a certain height.
Body Mass Index (BMI): A measure based on a ratio of weight to height.
Biological Factors in the Regulation of Hunger
Complex biological mechanisms signal hunger or satiety.
Changes in blood chemical composition:
Glucose levels
Insulin
Ghrelin: A hormone produced in the stomach lining that signals hunger to the brain.
Hypothalamus: A small but vital part of the brain responsible for regulating many basic bodily functions, including hunger, thirst, temperature, and sexual behavior.
Monitors glucose levels.
Regulates food intake.
Injury to the hypothalamus can affect the weight set point.
Weight set point: A specific weight level the body attempts to maintain.
Metabolism: The rate at which food is converted to energy and expended by the body.
Social Factors in Eating
Societal rules (e.g., table manners).
Cultural norms (e.g., types of food, meal times).
Individual habits.
Operant conditioning (e.g., associating food with comfort).
The Roots of Obesity
Possible Factors:
Oversensitivity to external eating cues (e.g., advertising, presence of appealing food).
Insensitivity to internal hunger cues (e.g., internal signals of fullness).
Number of fat cells in the body.
Rate of weight gain during the first months of life correlates with higher overweight risk in later childhood.
Higher weight set points, making it harder to lose weight.
Higher levels of the hormone leptin, which typically signals satiety but may be ineffective in some obese individuals.
Settling point: A dynamic weight level determined by a combination of genetic and environmental factors, suggesting a more flexible weight regulation than a strict set point.
Eating Disorders
Anorexia nervosa: A severe eating disorder characterized by refusal to eat, often accompanied by a denial of the seriousness of their low weight and unusual appearance.
Bulimia: An eating disorder involving cycles of binging on large quantities of food, followed by compensatory behaviors like vomiting or excessive exercise.
Factors in Eating Disorders:
Biological causes: Chemical imbalances, different brain processing of food-related information.
Societal valuation of slenderness and undesirability of obesity.
Other complex psychological and environmental factors.
The Need for Achievement: Striving for Success
Definition: A stable, learned characteristic where individuals achieve satisfaction by striving for and accomplishing challenging goals.
Individuals with high need for achievement:
Are selective in choosing challenges.
Avoid tasks where success comes too easily or is unlikely.
Individuals with low achievement motivation:
Are primarily motivated by the desire to avoid failure.
Measuring achievement motivation:
Thematic Apperception Tests (TAT): Participants view ambiguous pictures and write stories describing them. Researchers use a standard scoring system to quantify achievement imagery in the narratives.
The Need for Affiliation: Striving for Friendship
Definition: An interest in establishing and maintaining relationships with other people.
Gender plays a significant role in determining how much time individuals spend with friends.
The Need for Power: Striving for Impact on Others
Definition: The tendency to seek impact, control, or influence over others, and to be perceived as a powerful individual.
Significant gender differences exist in how the need for power is displayed.
MODULE 31 - Understanding Emotional Experiences
Understanding Emotional Experiences
Emotions Defined: Feelings that typically include both physiological and cognitive components, and which influence behavior.
Two system theories of emotion:
Some propose one system governs emotional response, and another governs cognitive reactions to that response (e.g., experience emotion first, then interpret it).
Others suggest cognitions about a situation develop first, leading to an emotional reaction.
The Functions of Emotions
Preparing us for action: Emotions mobilize us to respond to environmental challenges (e.g., fear triggers flight-or-fight).
Shaping our future behavior: Emotions serve as internal guides, helping us learn from past experiences.
Helping us interact more effectively with others: Emotions communicate our intentions and feelings, facilitating social connection and understanding.
Determining the Range of Emotions: Labeling Our Feelings
Basic Emotions:
Happiness
Anger
Fear
Sadness
Disgust
Broader list of emotions often includes:
Surprise
Contempt
Guilt
Joy
The Roots of Emotions
The James-Lange Theory:
Description: Emotional experience is proposed to be a reaction to bodily events that occur as a result of an external situation. We perceive physiological changes, and the brain interprets these sensations as emotions. For example, we feel sad because we cry; we are afraid because we tremble.
Drawbacks:
Visceral (internal organ) changes generally occur too slowly to be the sole cause of emotional experience.
Physiological arousal doesn't always lead to a specific emotional experience (e.g., increased heart rate can be from excitement or fear).
Internal organs produce a relatively limited range of sensations, which wouldn't account for the vast array of distinct emotions.
The Cannon-Bard Theory:
Description: Physiological arousal and emotional experience are produced simultaneously by the same nerve stimulus. This theory rejects the idea that physiological arousal alone causes emotion.
Upon perceiving an emotion-producing stimulus, the thalamus is the initial site of the emotional response, sending signals simultaneously to the autonomic nervous system (for physiological arousal) and the cortex (for emotional experience).
The Schachter-Singer Theory (Two-Factor Theory):
Description: Emotions are determined by two interacting factors: a non-specific kind of physiological arousal and a cognitive interpretation of that arousal, based on environmental cues.
Supports a cognitive view of emotions, where the meaning we assign to our arousal influences the emotion we feel.
Later research:
Found that arousal is more specific than Schachter and Singer initially believed.
However, still supports the idea that we often look to our surroundings to determine the source and label of our physiological arousal.
Contemporary Perspectives on the Neuroscience of Emotions:
Different emotions activate distinct portions of the brain.
The amygdala plays a crucial role in the experience of emotions, especially fear.
It provides a link between the perception of an emotion-producing stimulus and the later recall of that stimulus (emotional memory).
Neural pathways connecting the amygdala, visual cortex, and hippocampus indicate that emotion-related stimuli can be processed and responded to almost instantaneously, sometimes even before full conscious awareness.
Making sense of multiple perspectives:
Emotions are complex phenomena involving both biological and cognitive aspects.
No single theory thoroughly explains all facets of emotional experience.
Do People in All Cultures Express Emotion Similarly?
Facial-affect program: A hypothesized innate mechanism that activates nerve impulses to display the appropriate facial expression for a given emotion universally.
Facial-feedback hypothesis: Suggests that facial expressions not only reflect emotional experience but also actively contribute to determining how people experience and label emotions (e.g., smiling can make you feel happier).
Chapter 11 Sexuality and Gender
MODULE 32: Gender and Sex
Introduction
Gender: Psychological concept referring to one's perception and sense of being male or female.
Sex: Biological concept referring to an individual's sexual anatomy and sexual behavior.
Gender Roles: Society's Expectations for Women and Men
Gender roles: Societal expectations that define appropriate behaviors, attitudes, and activities for men and women.
Stereotyping: Making judgments about individuals based solely on their membership in a group.
Sexism: Negative attitudes and behaviors directed toward a person based on their gender.
Sexism on the Job
Traditional Job Roles: Women are often still seen as best suited for historically female-dominated professions.
Wage Gap: Women, on average, earn less than men in comparable positions.
The glass ceiling: Invisible barriers within organizations that impede women's advancement beyond a certain level due to gender discrimination.
Sexual Harassment
Involves:
Unwanted sexual attention.
Creation of a hostile or abusive work/educational environment.
Explicit coercion to engage in unwanted sexual activity.
Less about sex and more about power dynamics.
Can stem from 'benevolent sexism', which, while seemingly positive, still reinforces traditional gender roles and power imbalances.
Consequences for victims:
Feelings of shame and embarrassment.
Sense of helplessness and powerlessness.
Can lead to significant psychological distress and career disruption.
Gender Differences: More Similar Than Dissimilar
Personality factors: Differences between men and women are observed in:
Degree of aggressive behavior (males often higher).
Self-esteem (can vary, often with complex patterns).
How they view their own abilities and estimate their future success (men sometimes show higher confidence).
Speech patterns (e.g., assertive vs. affiliative).
Nonverbal behavior in conversations (e.g., eye contact, spatial distance).
Cognitive abilities: Differences in mathematical and verbal abilities are generally found to be minimal or non-existent when considering overall populations, though specific sub-skills might show small variations.
Sources of Gender Differences: Where Biology and Society Meet
Biological and evolutionary factors:
Hormones: Androgens (male sex hormones) and estrogens (female sex hormones) may influence performance on verbal and spatial tasks.
Estrogen specifically has been linked to verbal skill and muscular coordination.
Evolutionary interpretations: Suggest differences in the nature of jealousy (e.g., men more concerned with sexual infidelity, women with emotional infidelity) linked to reproductive strategies.
Biosocial approach: Posits that gender differences arise primarily from the historical differences in the physical capabilities of men and women, leading to distinct societal roles which then shape behavior and psychology.
The Social Environment:
Socialization: The process through which individuals learn society's rules and norms for appropriate behavior (including gender-appropriate behavior).
Gender schema: A mental framework that organizes and guides a child's understanding of information relevant to gender, influencing how they perceive themselves and others.
MODULE 33: Understanding Human Sexual Response: The Facts of Life
The Basic Biology of Sexual Behavior
Androgens: Male sex hormones primarily secreted by the testes.
Genitals: The male and female sex organs.
Estrogens: A class of female sex hormones primarily secreted by the ovaries.
Ovulation: The point in the female menstrual cycle when an egg is released from the ovaries.
Psychological Aspects of Sexual Excitement: What Turns People On?
External stimuli: Can be labeled as erotic or sexually stimulating, varying widely among individuals.
Erogenous zones: Areas of the body particularly sensitive due to a rich concentration of nerve receptors (e.g., genitals, inner thighs, neck).
The importance of these zones for sexual excitement is heavily influenced by interpretation and psychological context.
Nature of sexual fantasies: Imagined scenarios play a significant role in sexual arousal and desire.
The Phases of Sexual Response: The Ups and Downs of Sex
Developed by Masters and Johnson, this model describes four phases:
Excitement phase: The initial period where an arousing stimulus triggers a sequence of physiological changes, preparing the genitals for sexual intercourse (e.g., vasocongestion, the engorgement of blood vessels in body tissues, especially the genitals).
Plateau phase: The period of maximum arousal, characterized by further swelling of the penis and clitoris (due to blood engorgement), increased heart rate and blood pressure, and heightened muscle tension. The body prepares for orgasm.
Orgasm: The peak of sexual excitement, marked by rhythmic muscular contractions in the genitals and other parts of the body, accompanied by intense pleasure and the release of sexual tension. In males, this includes ejaculation.
Resolution stage: The interval following orgasm during which the body gradually returns to its unaroused state, reversing the physiological changes brought about by arousal.
Refractory period: A temporary period that follows the resolution stage in males, during which they cannot achieve another erection or orgasm.
MODULE 34: The Diversity of Sexual Behavior
Approaches to Sexual Normality
Defining abnormality:
Challenges exist in defining sexual behavior as abnormal based on statistical deviation (what's common) or by comparison against a specific standard/norm.
Sexual behavior is typically considered abnormal if it:
Causes a sense of distress, anxiety, or guilt for the individual.
Harms others (e.g., non-consensual acts).
Surveying Sexual Behavior: What's Happening Behind Closed Doors?
Alfred Kinsey's surveys on sexual behavior:
Represented the first systematic attempt to study human sexual behavior on a large scale.
Devised innovative interview techniques to gather sensitive information without causing embarrassment, allowing for open discussion of sexual practices.
Criticism: His samples often overrepresented college students, young people, well-educated individuals, and urban dwellers in Indiana and the U.S. Northeast, limiting the generalizability of his findings.
Masturbation: Sexual self-stimulation.
Kinsey's research helped demystify and normalize this common behavior, which at the time was often viewed negatively.
Heterosexuality
Definition: Sexual attraction and behavior directed towards individuals of the other sex.
Premarital sex:
Historically, a double standard existed, viewing premarital sex as permissible for males but not for females.
This has largely been superseded by a new view: permissiveness with affection, where premarital sex is accepted if it occurs within a loving or committed relationship.
Marital sex: Sexual activity within the context of marriage.
Extramarital sex: Sexual activity between a married person and someone who is not their spouse.
Homosexuality and Bisexuality
Homosexuals: Individuals who are primarily sexually attracted to members of their own sex.
Terms: Gay (typically for men), Lesbian (for women).
Bisexuals: Individuals who are sexually attracted to people of both their own sex and the other sex.
Determining the causes of sexual orientation:
Research suggests a combination of factors, including:
Genetic causes: Twin and family studies indicate a genetic component.
Hormones: Prenatal hormone exposure may play a role in brain development and sexual orientation.
Differences in brain structures: Some studies suggest subtle structural differences in the brains of homosexual individuals compared to heterosexual individuals.
Other biological factors are continually being explored.
Child-rearing or family dynamics: There is no scientific evidence to support that specific child-rearing practices or family structures cause homosexuality or bisexuality.
Learning theory: While some theories propose sexual orientation is learned through rewards and punishments, this theory has significant limitations as it does not adequately explain the consistency and deeply ingrained nature of sexual orientation, or why it often emerges without explicit learning or choice.
Transgenderism
Transgender: An umbrella term for individuals whose gender identity, gender expression, or behavior differs from that typically associated with the sex they were assigned at birth.
Sex-change operations (gender affirmation surgeries) may be an option for some transgender individuals seeking to align their physical appearance with their gender identity.
Intersex: An individual born with an atypical combination of sexual organs or chromosomal/gene patterns, making their biological sex ambiguous.
Sexual Difficulties and Issues
Rape:
Definition: An act where one person forces another to submit to sexual activity against their will.
Date rape: Occurs when the rapist is a date or romantic acquaintance, often involving coercion or incapacitation.
Motivations for rape can include: demonstrating power, expressing anger, or seeking sexual gratification.
Victim impact: Survivors may experience a wide range of emotional and psychological responses, including PTSD, depression, anxiety, and feelings of shame or guilt.
Sexual Difficulties and Issues (4)
Sexual problems
Erectile dysfunction: Male's inability to achieve or maintain an erection
Premature ejaculation: Male's inability to delay orgasm as long as he wishes
Delayed ejaculation disorder: Male's inability to ejaculate when he wants to, if at all
Female orgasmic disorder: Female's lack of orgasm
Primary orgasmic dysfunction
Secondary orgasmic dysfunction
Inhibited sexual desire: Sexual dysfunction in which the motivation for sexual activity is restrained or lacking entirely
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The terms we use to describe our emotional experience most often make reference to the physiological and cognitive components of those feelings, such as happiness, anger, or fear.