Urban Life and Development

Urban Life

Urban Population in the United States 

• 83 percent of the U.S. population lives in urban areas.

• Urbanization leads to many societal problems primarily relating to urban life.

Historical Development of Urban Areas

Colonial Villages(식민지 시대 마을): 1565 - 1800

• Early Urban Establishments by Europeans:

  • Spanish: Established Saint Augustine, Florida in 1565.

  • English: Founded Jamestown, Virginia in 1607.

  • Dutch: Founded New Amsterdam (now New York) at the southern tip of Manhattan Island in 1624.

  • English: Settled Boston in 1630.

Westward Expansion: 1800 - 1860

• Migration westward following new transportation routes:

  1. Land roads

  2. Rail lines

  3. Barge(바닥이 평평한 큰 배/바지선) canals

  4. National Road(국도) (established in 1818)

  5. Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (established in 1825)

  6. Erie Canal (opened in 1825)

• Formation of settlements(정착지들) along these routes that eventually became key Midwest cities, including Buffalo, Cleveland, Detroit, and Chicago.

• By 1860, $20\%$ of the nation’s population lived in urban settings.

The Industrial Metropolis(산업 대도시): 1860 - 1950

• Civil War led to the emergence of factories, causing increased migration from rural areas to urban locales. 남북전쟁은 공장의 출현으로 이어졌으며, 이는 농촌 지역에서 도시 지역으로 이주 증가를 초래함.

• Metropolis: term denoting a significant urban settlement, often referred to as the “mother city”.중요한 도시 정착지를 의미하는 용어로, 흔히 “어머니 도시”라고 불린다.

• Population highlights:

  • Chicago: Boasted(보유했다/가지고 있었다) $2 million$ residents.

  • New York City: Had $4 million$ people—greater than the entire nation’s population in 1790. - 뉴욕시는 400만명의 인구를 가지고 있었는데, 이는 1790년 미국 전체 인구보다 더 많았다.

Problems in Industrial Cities

Perception of Cities as Sources of Social Problems (1900s)

1. High Concentration(집중/밀집) of Immigrants: 이민자들의 높은 밀집

   • Two-thirds of the populace in the ten largest cities were immigrants or their children. 가장 큰 10개의 도시의 인구중 2/3은 이민자 또는 그들의 자녀였음.

   • Resulted in cultural diversity(다양성) leading to ethnic prejudice(민족적 편견) and antiurban bias(반도시적인 편견).

2. Social and Environmental Issues:

   • Industrial cities faced atmospheric pollution(대기 오염) and poor sanitation(열악한 위생상태); factory smoke fouled(오염시켰다) air, and sewage(하수) contaminated(오염시켰다) drinking water sources.

   • Resulted in(~을 초래했다) rampant(극심한) crime and epidemics(전염병들) in poor neighborhoods.

   • Abundant jobs demanded hard labor for long hours at low wages.

Postindustrial(탈산업화) Cities and Suburbs(교외지역): 1950 - Present

• 1950s marked(표시했다/나타냈다) the peak of industrial metropolis population. - 1950년대는 산업 대도시 인구가 정점에 달한 시기였다.

• Post-war baby boom driven(주도되는/~에 의해 움직여지는) by increased birth rates sent families seeking new housing. 전쟁후 베이비붐은 증가한 출생률에 의해 발생했으며, 이는 가족들이 새로운 주거지를 찾게 만드는 결과를 가지고 옴.

• Migration primarily from central cities to suburbs: 중심도시에서 교외로

  • Almost all new housing construction during this decade occurred in suburbs(교외).

  • Economic changes during the 1960s and 70s fueled(촉진했다/자극했다) suburban growth further. - 1960년대와 70년대의 경제적 변화는 교외 지역의 성장을 더욱 촉진함.

• Definition of postindustrial(탈산업화) economy:

  • Emergence(등장/출현) characterized by service work and digital technology leading to office relocations(이전/이동) from downtown factories. 서비스업과 디지털 기술로 특징지어지는 이러한 등장은, 도심 공장에서 사무실로 의전을 유발함.

• Population decentralization:

  • By 1970, $53\%$ of the U.S. population was suburbanites, with urban-to-suburban flow ongoing. - 1970년까지 미국 인구의 53%가 교외 거주자가 되었으며, 도시에서 교외로 이동하는 흐름은 계속되고 있었다.

Fiscal(재정적인) Problems of the 1970s

• Cities Went Broke: Major cities faced severe financial distress, nearing bankruptcy.

  • New York City faced significant population decline amidst suburban migration (loss of $860,000$ residents; representing a fall greater than Boston’s entire population). 뉴욕시는 교외로의 이주로 인해 심각한 인구 감소를 겪었으며, 약 86만명의 주민을 잃음. 

  • Shift of industries from downtown to suburban parks resulted in loss of jobs. 산업이 도심에서 교외 산업단지로 이동하면서 일자리 감소가 발생함.

• Population exit shifted tax bases significantly, with wealthier, educated individuals leaving, and poorer residents remaining reliant on social programs. 

• Inability to support social service costs and payroll needs led to fiscal crisis.

• Problems were consistent across many Northeast and Midwest cities as similar trends unfolded. 비슷한 경향이 전개되면서, 문제들은 미국 북동부와 중서부의 많은 도시 전반에 걸쳐 일관되게 나타남.

The Postindustrial Revival(탈산업 시대의 부흥)

Recovery Factors

1. New Financing Sources: Cities, including New York and previously distressed(어려움을 겪던/침체된) metropolitan areas, began adapting to postindustrial economies.

   • Job creation in emerging service sectors such as entertainment, financial services, law, and consulting replaced industrial job losses.

2. Increased Immigration:

   • Post-1980 resurgence(재상승/부활/회복) in population due to arrivals largely from Latin America and Asia seeking economic opportunities.

   • Immigrants primarily took up roles in hospitality and service sectors.

Economic Impact of the 2008 Recession and COVID-19

• Significant downturn(침체/하락) post-2008 recession(경기 침체/불황) resulted in job losses, property devaluations(가치하락), and decreased tax revenues(수입).

• Home foreclosure(압류/차압) crisis resulted in outmigration(이주) from cities, compounded by(~로 인해 더욱 악화되어) the dual strain(이중 부담) of industries relocating overseas(해외로).

• By 2012, the economy began slow recovery, yet job creation was insufficient(충분하지 않은/부족한) for the unemployed. 일자리 창출은 실업자들에게 충분하지 않았음.

• Certain cities, like Detroit, declared bankruptcy (2013) due to crippling(감당할 수 없을 정도로 심각한) debt of almost $20 billion$ .

• Detroit's unemployment peaked at $20\%$ resembling Great Depression rates with widespread property vacancies and decay.

• Despite difficulties, the city garnered(얻었다/이루어냈다) recovery through rising investments and community-driven revitalization efforts over time, yielding signs of economic improvement by 2016.

Urban Sprawl(도시 확산)

• Urban spread resulted in loss of farmland, driven by(~에 의해 추진되어) migration from central urban areas to developing suburbs. 도시 확산은 농지 감소를 초래했으며, 이는 중심 도시 지역에서 발전하는 교외 지역으로의 이주에 의해 발생한 현상.

• Megalopolis(초거대 도시권): coined(만들었다/지어냈다) by geographer Jean Gottmann to describe expansive urban regions. 장 고트만이 광대한 도시 지역을 설명하기 위해 만든 용어.

• Notable(주목할 만한/중요한) examples include continuous stretches(구간들/뻗은 지역들) of settlement(거주지/정착지) across large areas (e.g., Boston to Virginia, Cleveland to Chicago, and Florida).

• The construction of the interstate highway system facilitated(촉진했다/쉽게 만들었다) suburban(교외의) migration by enabling car-dependent development. - 주간 고속도로 체계의 건설은 자동차 의존적 개발을 가능하게 함으로써 교외로의 이주를 촉진.

• Urban Sprawl(도시 확산): characterized by low-density development with a mix of residential and commercial properties. 저밀도 개발과 주거 및 사업용 부동산이 혼합된 형태로 특징 지어지는 현상.

  • Seen as problematic due to environmental impact, loss of farmland, increased commuting(통근) times and costs, cluttered urban landscapes, and diminished(감소한,약화된) visual aesthetics(미관). 환경적 영향, 농지 감소, 통근 시간 및 비용 증가, 난잡한 도시 경관, 그리고 시각적 미관 저하 때문에 문제로 여겨짐.

• High commuting demand creates increased reliance on automobiles, heightening stress, and pollution(오염). 높은 통근 수요는 자동차에 대한 의존을 증가 시키며, 스트레스와 오염을 더욱 악화 시킴)

Economic Trends and Urban Development

Edge Cities(교외 외각 신도시)

• Emergence of edge cities as commercial hubs situated far from traditional downtowns. 교외 외각 신도시가 기존 도심에서 멀리 떨어진 상업 중심지로 등장함.

  • Distinction(구분/차이) from suburbs(교외) where the population density peaks by night versus edge cities(교외 외각 신도시) which peak during the day with business districts. 교외는 밤에 인구 밀도가 정점에 달하는 반면, 교외 외각 신도시는 낮 동안 상업/업무 지구가 활성화되면서 인구 밀도가 정점에 달한다는 점에서 구분된다. 

• Examples include Tyson’s Corner, King of Prussia, and Las Colinas.

Social Issues Facing Cities

Poverty(빈곤/가난)

• Migration to suburbs creates economic disparity(격차/불균형); affluent(부유한) individuals leaving leaves lower-income minorities in urban areas. 교외로의 이주는 경제적 격차를 초래함. 부유한 사람들이 떠나면서 저소득 소수 집단이 도시에 남게됨.

  • High poverty rates in cities are exacerbated by the cost of living in suburban areas preventing low-income families from moving.

• Camden, New Jersey: Example of a city with population decline and high poverty rates ($38\%$ of families below the poverty line).

Housing Problems

• Economic inequality creates disparities(격차/불균형) in urban housing quality and availability.

• Tenement Housing(빈민주택): Packaged housing solutions for immigrants; extremely poor living conditions recorded in the late 19th century.

  • Jacob Riis emerged(등장했다/나타났다) as the prominent(두드러진/중요한) voice against tenement conditions. Documents his experiences aiding public awareness through photography and narrative.

• Improvement through legislation(법률 제정/입법) and housing codes emerged only post-1930s. 법률 제정과 주택 규정을 통한 개선은 1930년대 이후에서야 나타남.

Social Segregation and Inequality(사회적 분리와 불평등)

Racial Segregation

• Segregation(분리/차별): Geographical separation imposed(강요된/부과된) by dominant groups on disadvantaged ones leads to undeniable social disadvantage. 지배 집단이 사회적 약자에게 지리적 분리를 강요하는 것으로, 이는 부정할 수 없는 사회적 불이익을 초래함.

• Continues to shape urban environments with predominately(주로/대체로) African American neighborhoods experiencing threefold poverty rates compared to majority White areas. 주로 아프리카계 미국인 지역은 대다수 백인 지역에 비해 세배의 빈곤율을 겪고 있으며, 이러한 현상은 도시 환경을 계속 형성함.

• Hypersegregation(극심한 분리) (Massey & Denton): Isolation of Districts, resulting in minority(소수 집단) populations often isolated from broader society(더 넓은 사회로부터) and reduced societal engagement(사회적인 참여). 특정 지역의 고립을 의미하며, 그 결과 소수 집단이 더 넓은 사회로부터 종종 고립되고 사회적 참여가 줄어들게 된다.

• Evidence indicates substantial gaps(상당한 격차들) remain despite reduced levels of segregation.

Homelessness

• Urban homelessness has diminished(감소했다) since the early 1900s, with policy shifts now viewing it as a social problem amid(~가운데/~속에서) a wealthier context.

• HUD 2019 Reporting: Approximately $568,000$ homeless on one night, with estimates suggesting $1.5 million$ experience homelessness yearly.

Urbanization in Poor Countries

• Urbanization trends reveal that roughly $31\%$ of populations in poorer nations are urbanized, versus $81\%$ in wealthy countries. - 도시화 추세는 가난한 나라들의 인구중 약 31%가 도시화된 반면, 부유한 나라들은 81%가 도시화 되어있음을 보여준다.

• Projected increase in global urban populations will lead urban environments to balloon to $66\%$ by the year 2050.

• Challenges include poor infrastructure, homelessness, and lack of clean water exacerbated by ongoing economic struggles.

Theories of Urbanization and Urban Problems

Structural-Functional Analysis: A Theory of Urbanism

• Macro-level perspective(사회 전체의 구조의 큰 패턴을 바라보는 관점): Examines how urban structures and institutions contribute to the overall balance and stability of society. 도시의 구조와 제도들이 사회의 전반적인 균형과 안정에 어떻게 기여하는지 분석

• Theory of Urbanism: Developed through works of Ferdinand Tönnies, Emile Durkheim, and Louis Wirth.

  • Ferdinand Tönnies: Distinguished between two types of social organization:

    • Gemeinschaft(전통적 공동사회) (Community): Characterizes rural life(농촌 삶), marked by close personal ties, tradition, shared moral values, and a strong sense of collective identity. Relationships are intimate(친밀한) and enduring(오래 지속되는). 농촌 삶을 특정짓는 개념으로, 가까운 개인적 유대, 전통, 공유된 도덕적 가치, 강한 집단 정체성을 기반으로 한다. 이러한 관계는 친밀하고 오래 지속된다.

    • Gesellschaft(이익 사회) (Society): Represents urban life(도시 삶), characterized by impersonal, fleeting, and instrumental relationships. Individual self-interest takes precedence over collective bonds. Tönnies argued that urbanization leads to a decline in Gemeinschaft in favor of Gesellschaft. Tonnies는 도시화가 공동사회의 쇠퇴를 가져오고 Gesellschaft가 강화되는 방향으로 이끈다고 주장.

  • Émile Durkheim: Described how social bonds(사회적 유대) change with industrialization and urbanization:

    • Mechanical Solidarity(기계적 연대): Prevalent(일반적인) in pre-industrial(산업화 이전의) societies, based on shared beliefs, traditions, and similar tasks, leading to a strong collective consciousness. 산업화 이전 사회에서 널리 나타나며, 공유된 신념, 전통, 비슷한 일을 기반으로 하기 때문에 강한 집단 의식으로 이어진다. 

    • Organic Solidarity(유기적 연대): Emerges(나타난다/등장한다) in industrial and urban societies due to the division of labor(노동의 분업). Individuals perform specialized tasks(전문화된 일), making them interdependent(상호의존적인) and creating a new type of social cohesion(사회적 결속) based on mutual reliance(상호 의존) despite individual differences.

  • Louis Wirth: Characterized urban life by three key factors:

    • Size: Large populations lead to anonymity, superficial relationships, and social distance.

    • Density: High concentration of people intensifies competition, specialization, and segmentation of social roles, often requiring greater tolerance for diverse lifestyles.

    • Heterogeneity(다양성): The diverse(다양한) mix of people (from various backgrounds, classes, and occupations) fosters tolerance but can also lead to weakened social ties and social disorganization.

Symbolic-Interaction Analysis: Experiencing the City(도시를 경험하는 방식)

• Micro-level perspective: Focuses on how individuals experience and interpret urban life, emphasizing the subjective meanings people attach to places and interactions within specific urban contexts.

• George Herbert Mead & Herbert Blumer: Laid the groundwork for this perspective, highlighting that meanings are created through social interaction.

• Georg Simmel's "The Metropolis and Mental Life":

  • Described the psychological adaptations to urban living, such as the "blasé attitude": a protective mechanism of emotional detachment and indifference developed by urbanites to cope with the overwhelming sensory stimulation and constant social contact in cities.

  • Examined how urban anonymity provides both personal freedom from social constraints and a sense of isolation.

• This perspective highlights how urban environments foster diverse subcultures and communities of choice, where individuals seek out others with shared interests, thereby creating their own meaningful social worlds within the larger, anonymous city.

Social-Conflict Analysis: Cities and inequality

• Macro-level perspective: Emerges from Marxist thought, focusing on social inequalities, power struggles, and systemic issues within urban settings. It argues that urban problems are a result of broader societal structures and economic systems.

• Argues that urban development is driven by profit-seeking motives, often benefiting powerful economic elites (e.g., capitalists, real estate developers) at the expense of marginalized groups.

• Investigates the differential impacts of economic status on urban development and the perpetuation of inequality:

  • Capital Accumulation: Urban spaces are structured and restructured to facilitate capital investment and generate profit, leading to cycles of construction, decay, and redevelopment.

  • Uneven Development: Resources and development are unevenly distributed across urban areas, creating spatial inequalities where some neighborhoods prosper while others suffer from neglect and disinvestment.

  • Gentrification: A process where wealthier individuals move into and renovate deteriorated urban areas, often displacing lower-income residents and altering the social character of the neighborhood, highlighting class conflict over urban space.

• David Harvey's Study of Baltimore: Examined how urban assets are often devoted to profit-driven uses, leading to gentrification and spatial segregation, where social inequality is perpetuated in housing markets and access to resources.

• Critiques government policies that often support capitalist interests in urban development, further entrenching social disparities.

Political Perspectives on Urban Issues

• Conservative View: Emphasizes historical improvements in urban areas but warns of dependence on markets leading to moral decay(도덕적 타락), particularly from welfare state policies. 도시 지역의 역사적 개선을 강조하지만, 시장 의존이 도덕적 타락으로 이어질수 있음을 경고하며, 특히 복지 국가 정책으로부터 비롯된 문제를 지적

• Liberal View: Focuses on addressing(해결하는 것/다루는 것) economic inequalities and advocating for government programs and interventions(개입) to improve urban conditions and social services. 경제적 불평등을 해결하는 데 초점을 맞추고, 도시 환경과 사회 서비스를 개선하기 위한 정부 프로그램과 개입을 옹호.

• Radical View: Aligns(일치한다/부합한다) closely with social-conflict analysis, arguing that fundamental(근본적인) societal changes are needed to resolve(해결하기 위해) urban problems, which are seen as inherent(고유한/본질적인) results of capitalist structures(자본주의 구조) and power imbalances. It advocates(그것은 옹호한다) for systemic transformations rather than mere reforms(개혁). 이 관점은 사회-갈등 분석과 밀접하게 일치하며, 도시 문제를 해결하기 위해서는 근본적인 사회 변화가 필요하다고 주장한다. 도시 문제는 자본주의 구조와 권력 불균형에서 비롯된 본질적 결과로 보며, 단순한 개혁이 아니라 체계 자체를 변화시키는 근본적 변혁을 옹호한다.

알아야 하는 단어들:

Urbanization(도시화): The movement of people from the countryside to cities. 사람들이 농촌에서 도시로 이동하는 현상

Gemeinschaft(게마인샤프트): a type of social organization in which people are closely bound by kinship and tradition. 혈연 전통에 기반해 사람들 간의 유대가 긴밀한 공동체적 사회 조직

Gesellschaft(게젤샤프트): a type of social organization in which people interact on the basis of self-interest. - 사람들이 개인의 이익과 계약을 기반으로 관계를 맺는 사회조직.

Mechanical solidarity(기계적 연대): social bonds based on common sentiments and shared moral values 공통된 감정, 전통, 도덕적 가치를 기반으로 형성되는 사회적 유대

Urban sprawl(도시 확산): unplanned, low-density development at the edge of expanding urban areas. - 도시가 계획없이, 저밀도로, 외곽 지역까지 넓어지는 현상

Public housing(공공주택): high-density apartment buildings constructed to house poor people - 저소득층을 위해 정부가 지은 고밀도 아파트 단지

Megalopolis(메갈로폴리스): a vast urban region containing a number of cities and their surrounding suburbs. - 여러 도시와 그 주변 교외 지역이 하나로 연결된 거대한 도시권

Supportive housing(지원 주택): a program that combines low-income housing with on-site social services. - 저소득층을 위한 주거 + 현장 사회복지 서비스가 결합된 프로그램.

suburbs(교외): urban areas beyond the political boundaries of cities

Organic solidarity(유기적 연대): social bonds based on specialization and mutual interdependence. 전문화된 역할과 상호 의존성을 바탕으로 이루어지는 사회적 유대

Enterprise zone(기업 유치 구역): areas in the inner city that attract new business with the promise of tax relief.  세금 감면을 미끼로 기업을 유치하기 위해 설정된 도심 내 특별 지역

Modernization theory(근대화 이론): a model of economic and social development that explains global inequality in terms of technological and cultural differences between societies. - 국가 간 빈부 격차를 기술,문화 발전 수준의 차이로 설명하는 경제 사회 발전 모델

예시 문제들:

By the early 1900s, New York City's population of 4 million exceeded the total U.S. population recorded in 1790.

• True - 초과했음

The 1950s marked the peak of population in America’s industrial metropolises.

• True

By 1970, what percentage of the U.S. population lived in the suburbs?

• 53%

Certain cities, such as Detroit, declared bankruptcy in 2013 due to nearly $20 billion in crippling debt.

• True

Predominately African American neighborhoods experience poverty rates that are three times higher than those in majority white areas

• True

According to HUD’s 2019 report, approximately how many people were homeless on a single night?

• 568,000

Urbanization trends show that about 31% of the population in poorer nations is urbanized, while 81% of the population in wealthy countries is urbanized.

• True

What is Gemeinschaft?

• Rural, Kinship-based, traditional community

What is organic solidarity(Durkheim)?

• Social cohesion(결속/응집) in urban, complex societies.

where is homelessness primarily found?

• Urban area

what are edge cities?

• Commercial centers outside traditional downtowns. 전통적인 도심외부에 위치한 상업 중심지들

According to William Julius Wilson, how can inner cities be improved?

• Creating jobs, including government-funded work.

What type of housing did Oscar Newman find crime is more common in? 오스카 뉴먼이 범죄가 더 많이 발생한다고 발견한 주거 형태는 무엇인가?

• High-rise public housing