AP Human Geography - Unit 1 Notes

Types of Maps (Topic 1.1)

IMP-1.A.1: Types of maps include reference maps and thematic maps.
- Thematic Map: A map that portrays/emphasizes a particular theme or topic.
  - Uses:
    - Helps us understand the spatial distribution of the data.
    - Allows us to understand the geographic patterns the data may form.
    - An effective way to search the correlation between data in two different places.
- Reference Map: A map that shows where something is in space, displaying geographical data and political data.

Different Types of Thematic Maps

Cartogram: This type of map distorts land areas to show the change of a value.
Choropleth: This type of map uses different colors/shades to show the change of a value.
Dot: This type of map uses the amount of dots to represent the value. So, the more dots in an area, the higher that value.
Graduated Symbol: This type of map uses the size of a symbol to represent the value. As the size of the symbol increases, so does the value; as the size of the symbol decreases, so does the value.
Isoline: This type of map uses lines to connect areas that share a particular value.

Spatial Patterns (Topic 1.1)

IMP-1.A.2: Types of spatial patterns represented on maps include absolute and relative distance and direction, clustering, dispersal, and elevation.
Quick Note: All topics below relate to space and how you maneuver about it or how objects are placed in it.

Direction and Distance

Absolute Distance: Distance that can be counted using a standard unit of a precise measurement.
- Example: It takes exactly 5.9 miles to drive to duPont Manual High School from Louisville Male.
Absolute Direction: This term is used to understand maps when looking at them.
- Absolute direction uses North, South, East, and West (the Cardinal Directions) to do so.
- Example: duPont Manual is southwest of Ralph Wright Natatorium.
Relative Distance: Distance that cannot be counted using a standard unit of measurement; it is imprecise.
- Example: It takes about 25 minutes from White Blossom Neighborhood to duPont Manual High School.
Relative Direction: Imprecise terms used to describe direction:
- left/right and up/down are examples.
- Example: If you walk out towards the courtyard of duPont Manual and walk left about a block, you can find Cardinal Towne.

Types of Distribution

Clustering: When similar people or items are grouped close.
- Example: When taking our class Unit 1, take 2 exams; we are sorted into groups at our table with people who had similar scores.
Dispersal: The spacing of people or items within geographic population barriers.
- Example: My neighbor was sent to Male High School, however, I was sent to duPont Manual High School.
Elevation: The altitude of a place above sea level or ground.
- Example: Mount Everest's elevation is 8,848 meters above sea level.

Map Projections (Topic 1.1)

IMP-1.A.3: All maps are selective in information; map projections inevitably distort spatial relationships in shape, area, distance, and direction.
Map Projections: 2D to represent 3D objects or any method used to represent the world in 2D.
All map projections distort the surface (SADD: scale, area, distance, direction).

Map Projections:

Robinson Projection
- Benefits
  - globe-like "real-like"
  - Accurately shows most sizes, distances, and shapes
- Purpose
  - Used commonly in schools & atlases
- Distortion/Limitations
  - Less accurate at the poles
  - Imprecise measurements, cannot be used for navigation
Mercator Projection
- Benefits
  - Shows true direction
  - Good for navigation
  - 90° angles & straight lines of longitude & latitude
- Purpose
  - Best map for nautical use
  - Poles look much larger to help ship captains
  - Most commonly-used (Google Maps uses Mercator)
- Distortion/Limitations
  - Distorts area (Greenland & Africa shouldn't be about the same size)
  - Areas get larger with latitude
  - Size is distorted a lot in the poles
  - Sometimes associated with marginalization of Africa due to being represented as smaller than it is in reality
Gall-Peters Projection
- Benefits
  - Shows true direction
  - Area is relatively accurate
  - Not much distortion of continents (land size is preserved)
  - Superior alternative to Mercator
- Purpose
  - Used for Navigation & world Maps
- Distortion/Limitations
  - Continents look elongated
  - Distorts Oceans
  - Distorts shape
Polar Projections (Azimuthal)
- Benefits
  - Shown from the north pole, no country is in center
  - Preserves direction
  - Distances from the center (poles) are preserved
- Purpose
  - Used by airplane pilots to navigate best routes
  - Used as an emblem on the United Nations flag
- Distortion/Limitations
  - Distorts parallels of latitude
  - Distorts shape & area
  - Only shows 1/2 of the earth

Geographic Data (Topic 1.2)

IMP-1.B.1: Data may be gathered in the field by organizations or by individuals.
IMP-1.B.2: Geospatial technologies include geographic information systems (GIS), satellite navigation systems, remote sensing, and online mapping and visualization.

Geographic Information Systems (GIS)

Definition: A computer system that scans geographic areas and compiles that data through specific layers depending on the wanted outcome.
Purpose:
- Helps people visualize and organize spatial patterns and relationships.
- Helps governments and businesses find positive and negative characteristics of areas.
Examples:
- Tracks deforestation in Nigeria
- Identifies certain sites for schools in Kenya
IMP-1.B.3: Spatial information can come from written accounts in the form of field observations, media reports, travel narratives, policy documents, personal interviews, landscape analysis, and photographic interpretation.

Spatial Information Observations

Personal Interviews
- Definition: A person that explains his or hers observations of opinions on a subject.
- Information Outcomes:
  - Visual Explanations
  - Economic Patterns
Field Observations
- Definition: The observation of a specific person or group in their environment to gain knowledge about behaviors and activities.
- Information Outcomes:
  - Land Use
  - Patterns in Settlement
  - Workplace environments
Remote Sensing Systems
- Definition: Detecting and monitoring physical characteristics of an area using remote-controlled technologies such as satellites or aircraft (No physical Contact).
- Purpose:
  - Helps collect information over large areas of land.
  - Helps monitor areas of the world that are hard to explore
  - Informs people with fast and accurate information.
- Examples:
  - Satellite monitoring and tracking hurricanes
  - Aircraft scans of an Island
Satellite Navigation Systems
- Definition: A system that uses satellites to provide geospatial positioning on the earth's surface by using longitude and latitude lines for easy visualization.
- Purpose:
  - Helps provide a map on your phone to a location
  - Makes it easier for drivers to find the most optimal pathway to a destination
- Examples:
  - Using a GPS to get to your grandma's house
  - Entering on your phone the quickest path to Costco
Policy Documents
- Definition: Official papers that specifies the rules, guidelines, and regulations of a certain place.
- Information Outcomes:
  - Safety Measurements
  - Accessibility Requirements
Photographic Interpretation
- Definition: The process of studying photographs to identify certain patterns or characteristics of an area.
- Information Outcomes:
  - Differentiation of Land Use
  - Agriculture Practices
  - Settlement Patterns
Media Reports
- Definition: The communication of ideas and products from the media source to a consumer or listener.
- Information Outcomes:
  - Peoples interactions
  - Issues at all scales
  - Land Use
Travel Narratives
- Definition: A first hand account that's written in a document. (On the spot documentation)
- Information Outcomes:
  - Eye Witness Accounts
  - Social Patterns
  - Land Use
Landscape Analysis
- Definition: The process of studying the use of the land and interactions with humans and the environment.
- Information Outcomes:
  - Land Use
  - Agriculture Practices
  - Infrastructure Sustainability

The Power of Geographic Data (Topic 1.3)

IMP-1.C.1: Geospatial and geographical data, including census data and satellite imagery, are used at all scales for personal, business and organizational, and governmental decision making purposes.

Applications of Geographic Data

Geographic Data: any data that is associated with a specific location
- Government:
  - Mapping flu activity by state to better prevent infection
  - Mapping where homelessness is at its highest to determine optimal shelter locations and potential causes for homelessness
- Business:
  - Demographics of an area determine marketing strategies
  - Insurance companies use floodplain maps to determine insurance rates
- Personal:
  - Crime rates and walkability in a neighborhood determine where people want to live
  - Housing prices in a neighborhood helps you decide how much to sell your house for
- Organizational:
  - Mapping Native American lands
  - During natural disasters, victims used apps to communicate their location and needs to rescuers (food, water, etc.)
Geospatial Data: time-based data related to a specific location on Earth's surface
- Government:
  - Manage programs and evaluate policy outcomes
  - Integrate diverse data to operationalize solutions
- Business:
  - Allows business to know their influence on community compared to competitors
  - Helps businesses improve logistics and utilize better delivery routes
- Personal:
  - Identify patterns, assess emerging trends, make data-driven decisions
- Organizational:
  - Empowers organizations to look at value creation in a different light
Methods of Data Collection:
- Census Data (demographics, population, income)
- Remote Sensing (satellite imagery)
- OpenStreetMap: Map-making network; Acquires data on places around the world

Spatial Concepts - Topic 1.4

PSO-1.A.1: Spatial concepts include absolute and relative location, space, place, flows, distance decay, time-space compression, and pattern.
- Thinking geographically includes analyzing how people/things are arranged in space-the area between two things on Earth
- Geographers study the distribution, or arrangement, of people and places to analyze how and why we are organized the way we are

Key Spatial Concepts

Density: the number of things in a given area (of land); urban areas have a higher density than rural areas
Pattern: the way things (people) are arranged in a place
- How the place was settled, what the peoples' needs are
- Some cities weren't planned and developed more randomly, while others were planned before settlement in patterns like grids
Location: the position that a point or object occupies on Earth
- Absolute location: the exact location of a point/object; normally expressed by coordinates (Louisville- 38.2527°N, 85.7585°W)
- Relative location: describing where a place is in relation to other places/physical features (Louisville- South of the Ohio River, next to the border with Southern Indiana)
Site: the absolute location/physical characteristics of a place- landforms, climate, resources
Situation: the way that a place is affected by the surrounding area- transportation systems, political relationships, cultural connections
all spaces change over time!! The world is not at rest and is constantly changing. The flow (movement) of people/things/information is studied in human geography
Distance Decay: the farther things are from one another, the less they will interact
- The use of technology (phone calls) and faster transportation lessen the effects
Time-Space Compression: the relative distance between places shrinks because of modern transportation and technology
- Communication and transportation are faster and easier than ever (phones, planes, bullet trains)

Human-Environmental Interaction (Topic 1.5)

PSO-1.B.1: Concepts of nature and society include sustainability, natural resources, and land use.
PSO-1.B.2: Theories regarding the interaction of the natural environment with human societies have evolved from environmental determinism to possibilism.
- Human societies impact the environment, and the environment impact human societies.
- A key concern for human societies is sustainability. Sustainability is focused on providing not only for society today, but also for future generations.

Key Sustainability Issues

Two key sustainability issues are natural resources and land use.
- For natural resources- human societies use the Earth's resources. For example, countries use fossil fuels for transportation, electricity, etc.
- For land use- human societies determine how they use land in terms of the purpose (commercial, residential, etc.) along with level of use (intensive or extensive).

Theories of Human-Environment Interaction

Environmental Determinism
- The environment determines (decides) characteristics of human society and even the success or failure of the society.
Possibilism
- With people anything is possible. Human societies are influenced by their natural environment, but not controlled by it.
- Why is possibilism more popular today?
  - Technology helps show that human societies can significantly alter the natural environment (although perhaps they shouldn't, think sustainability).
  - Environmental determinism is too simplistic- single factor of environment, no human agency.

Scale of Analysis (Topic 1.6)

PSO-1.C.1: Scales of analysis include global, regional, national, and local.
PSO-1.D.1: Patterns and processes at different scales reveal variations in, and different interpretations of, data.
- Scale: the relationship of the size of a map to the amount of area it represents on the earth
  - Large scale vs. small scale
    - Large scale: shows less area in greater detail
    - Small scale: shows larger area in less detail
- Scale of analysis: the level at which the data is displayed.

Scales of Analysis

Global
- Shows the world at one level of data
- Ex: World
- This level of analysis is usually not that useful except when looking at issue such as global warming
Regional
- Shows data by continents or world regions
- Ex: In this map Australia has the highest GDP per capita (PPP)
National
- Shows data for one or more countries
- Ex: In this map India has a high population density
Local
- Shows subnational data
- Ex: the states within the United States (could also show even more localized like counties, zip codes)
Different scales of analysis can lead to different conclusions

Regional Analysis (Topic 1.7)

SPS-1.A.1: Regions are defined on the basis of one or more unifying characteristics or on patterns of activity.
SPS-1.A.2: Types of regions include formal, functional, and perceptual/vernacular.
SPS-1.A.3: Regional boundaries are transitional and often contested and overlapping.
SPS-1.A.4: Geographers apply regional analysis at local, national, and global scales.
- REGIONS: Places grouped together by characteristics (Human Constructs)
  - Note: Regions are often overlapping and may be contested.
  - Geographers use regional analysis to study groups of places.

Types of Regions

Formal (Uniform)
- Grouped by common environmental, social, political and/or economic attribute
- Religion, Ethnicity, Language, Climate, Political Boundaries
- Key Question: What is the shared characteristic(s)?
- Ex) At the World Regional scale- European Union because of political beliefs and boundaries. At the national scale there are different formal language regions within the United States, for example where Spanish is the primary language spoken
Functional (Nodal)
- Grouped around a central point or NODE
- Economic Activities or points(City Hall), World cities, transportation (Airport)
- Key Questions :What is the activity? What is the extent of influence of the node?
- Ex)At the local scale- Pizza hut delivery zones because pizza hut determines how far it delivers based off of the location of the building producing. At a global scale-New York is a node because it is a world city and has a large influence on cities all over the world with things like fashion etc… so the places being influenced are in a functional region with NY as the node.
Vernacular (Perceptual)
- NO PERFECT DEFINITION, Grouped by feelings or attitudes towards the area of land
- Shared history, or interests
- Key Questions: How do you feel about these places? What is their history?
- Ex) The Midwest because of shared history and people's conceptions about those states. World Regional Scale -The Middle East because it is perceived to exist as a result of religious and ethnic characteristics but countries included are often debated about.

Factors Impacting Population Distribution (Topic 2.1)

PSO-2.A.1: Physical factors (e.g., climate, landforms, water bodies) and human factors (e.g., culture, economics, history, politics) influence the distribution of population.
PSO-2.A.2: Factors that illustrate patterns of population distribution vary according to the scale of analysis.

Basic Distribution Patterns:

Uniform - Spaced Equally Apart
Linear - Spaced In A Line
Clustered - Organized In Groups Or Around A Point
Random - Organized With No Visible Order.

Factors Impacting Patterns In Population Distribution

Physical Factors
- Climate
  - Not too hot, cold, wet, or dry
  - Extreme areas have lower densities.
  - Ex: Europe's temperate climate is suitable for many purposes and attracts more people.
  - EX: Temperate areas benefit agriculture, thus, providing more food for a population (Europe or Japan).
- Water Bodies
  - Promote population growth due to transportation & resources
    - Ex: 81.4% of the U.S. population lives in coastal states (high densities).
- Landforms
  - Landforms constrain populations
  - Low densities at higher altitudes
    - Ex: The Himalayan Mountains have lower populations)
Human/Social Factors
- Politics
  - Better/more stable governments have higher populations
    - Ex: Sudan has a more unstable government, and thus, a lower population.
- Economics
  - Better market + skilled workers = higher populations.
    - Ex: India has a booming economy (technological too) resulting is substantial population growth.
- Culture
  - Practices, preferences, sense of community, etc. influence population size.
    - Ex: 77% of Catholics drive 15 minutes or less to get to church.
- History
  - Colonialism, and older settlement locations impact population size.
    - Ex: 80% of Americans live on the Eastern side (east of the 98th meridian of longitude)

Factors And Scales of Analysis:

The left map shows Canada at a national scale, where climate affects Distribution greatly (More Uniform).
The right map shows the local scale of Canada where more factors can affect distribution greater than climate (more Clustered).
- Quebec can pull or push people to the city due to French influences.
- Toronto can pull people to the city due to its major economic development.