Infancy and Toddlerhood

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

Complications of Childbirth

● Low birth weight infants: weigh less than 5 pounds 8 ounces at birth

    ○ Very Low: weigh less than 3 pounds 4 ounces

    ○ Extremely Low: weigh less than 2 pounds

● Preterm infants: those born three weeks or more before the pregnancy has

reached the completion of 37 weeks of gestation

    ○ Physicians believe that during the period shortly after birth, the parents

    and newborn need to form an emotional attachment

    ○ This emotional attachment serves as the foundation for optimal

    development in years to come

● Postmature infants: those born after 42 weeks of gestation

    ○ Pregnancy extends beyond the typical 40 weeks

    ○ Infant may experience complications due to the placenta's declining

        function

● Small for date infants: those whose birth weight is below normal when the

length of the pregnancy is considered

    ○ Has more than a fourfold increased risk of death

    ○ Weigh less than 90 percent of all babies of the same gestational age

● Miscarriage: spontaneous loss of a fetus before the 20th week of pregnancy

    ○ Also called Spontaneous Abortion

    ○ Stillbirth: miscarriage occurred after 20 weeks of gestation

    ○ Males are more likely to be spontaneously aborted or stillborn

Other Physical Developmental Issues

● Most premature babies are susceptible to respiratory problems due to limited

air sacs

    ○ Anoxia: lack of oxygen

    ○ Hypoxia: reduced oxygen supply

● Neonatal Jaundice: infant jaundice caused by immaturity of the liver

● The chief causes of neonatal death worldwide are preterm birth

complications, childbirth complications, and sepsis

● Sudden Infant Death Syndrome: sudden death of an infant under age 1

○ Triple Risk Model: SIDS is the result of 3 overlapping factors

○ SIDS will occur only if a vulnerable infant is exposed to a stressor during

the critical period

● Absence of basic reflexes at birth may also be a sign of motor or neurological

problems that affect development and other functions

Early Reflexes

● Reflex: automatic, innate response to stimulation

● Infants have an estimate of 27 major reflexes

    ○ Primitive: related to instinctive needs for survival and protection

    ○ Postural: reactions to changes in position or balance

    ○ Locomotor: voluntary movements that do not appear until months after

the reflexes have disappeared

● Most early reflexes disappear during the first 6 to 12 months

Please refer studying the reflexes

Maturation Theory – proposes that child development is a biological process that

unfolds in a fixed sequence based on genetic instructions

● Developed by Arnold Gesell

● Gesell believed that growth and development follow a natural timetable and

are primarily driven by maturation, not environment or learning

● He also believed that all children cycle in and out of stages of equilibrium and

disequilibrium

Core Principles of the Maturation Theory

● Maturation as the Primary Driver of Development

    ○ Development unfolds naturally from within, guided by genetic and

biological processes

    ○ The environment has a supportive role but cannot override the child's

internal biological timetable

● Development Follows a Predictable Sequence

    ○ All children go through the same stages of development in the same

order, although the rate may vary

    ○ These patterns are universal and biologically programmed

● Individual Differences in Rate of Maturation

    ○ While the sequence is fixed, the pace differs per child due to heredity

    ○ Some children may walk earlier or talk later, and that’s considered normal

within a biological range

● Cephalocaudal and Proximodistal Development

    ○ Cephalocaudal: development progresses from head to tail (ex. infants

gain head control before trunk and legs)

    ○ Proximodistal: development moves from the center outward (ex. control

of arms before fingers)

● Readiness

    ○ Children must reach a certain level of biological maturity before they can

learn specific skills

    ○ Trying to teach a child a skill (like toilet training or reading) before they

are developmentally ready will be ineffective

● Observation-Based Milestones

    ○ Gesell created detailed developmental schedules or norms based on

years of observing children’s motor, language, social, and adaptive

behavior

    ○ These milestones became tools for assessing typical vs. atypical

development

● Self-Regulation and Inner Direction

    ○ Children have an innate ability to regulate their development (ex.

self-soothing, sleeping patterns) as they mature

    ○ This inner guidance system drives much of their early behavior

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Sensorimotor Stage of Cognitive Development

● Infants learn about themselves and their environment through sensory and

motor activity

● At this stage, infants transition from reflexes to goal-oriented toddlers

● Schemas become more elaborate as the infant develops

● Critical for understanding the world

● Lack of development in this area may signal neurological or cognitive delays

Deception

● Children become capable of telling simple lies at about 3

● Ability to lie is considered as developmental milestone

● Preschoolers who are more advanced in their understanding of others

mental states are better liars

PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Oral Stage of Psychosexual Development

● Stage in development governed by the Id

● Focuses on nurturance, caregiving, and attachment

● Fixation occurs if the infant’s needs are neglected or overindulged

● Oral Fixation: persistent need for oral gratification

        ○ Oral Passive: (under gratification) trusting and dependent

        ○ Oral Aggressive: (over gratification) dominating, hostile, and verbally

                abusive

● Emphasizes how early oral experiences can shape later dependency or

coping behaviors

Attachment – reciprocal, enduring emotional tie between an infant and a

caregiver, each of whom contributes to the quality of the relationship

● Significant individual is typically the mother

● Strange Situation: an experiment conducted by Ainsworth to assess

attachment patterns between infant and adult

● According to Bowlby, attachment styles resulted from repeated interactions

with a caregiver

● Signs that an Attachment is Formed

    ○ Stranger Anxiety: wariness of a person she does not know

    ○ Separation Anxiety: distress when a familiar caregiver leaves her

    ○ Separation Protest: crying when caregiver leaves

● Babies react negatively to strangers by 8 or 9 months (shows normal

development)

● Mutual Regulation: the ability of both infant and caregiver to respond

appropriately and sensitively to each other’s mental and emotional states

● Social Referencing: seeking emotional information to guide behavior

● Crucial in early development for survival

Trust vs. Mistrust of Psychosocial Development (Infancy)

● Infants begin to form a perception of the world depending on how their

caregiver responds to their needs

● ↑ Syntonic (Maladaptive): Sensory Distortion

    ○ Child may grow up with unrealistic optimism, gullibility, and naivety

    ○ Too trusting

    ○ Caused by excessive indulgence unrealistically consistent caregiving

during infancy

● ↓ Dystonic (Malignant): Withdrawal

    ○ Child withdraws emotionally, becomes suspicious, isolated, or unable to

form relationships

    ○ Too fearful or insecure

    ○ Caused by neglectful, inconsistent, abusive, or emotionally unavailable

        caregiving

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt of Psychosocial Development (Toddlerhood)

● Child begins to learn control over their body and assert their sense of

independence

● Sets the foundation for autonomy and confidence in later life

● ↑ Syntonic (Maladaptive): Impulsiveness

○ Child tends to jump into things without proper consideration

○ Too much autonomy without healthy boundaries

○ Caused by overindulgent parenting (yes, yes, yes)

● ↓ Dystonic (Malignant): Compulsiveness

        ○ Child is overly restrictive and doubtful of their abilities

○ Obsessive concern with order, rules, or perfection

○ Caused by excessive punishment, criticism, or control

Maltreatment in Infancy and Toddlerhood

● Nonorganic Failure to thrive: slowed or arrested physical growth with no

known medical cause, accompanied by poor developmental and emotional

functioning

● Shaken Baby Syndrome: babies have weak neck muscles, and large, heavy

head, shaking makes the brain bounce back and forth inside the skull