Learning Unit 7: Motives for Criminal Behaviour Notes

INTRODUCTION TO MOTIVES FOR CRIMINAL BEHAVIOUR

• Fundamental Inquiry: This learning unit addresses the core questions: ‘What causes criminal behaviour?’ and ‘Why do individuals commit crimes?’
• Definition of Motive: A motive refers to the underlying reasons or the internal state that drives a person to commit a crime.
• Time Commitment: It is estimated that approximately $8\,hours$ should be dedicated to working through this learning unit.

KEY CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS

• Cognitions: These encompass mental activities such as thoughts, beliefs, expectations, plans, goals, strategies, appraisals, attributions, and self-concept (Reeve, 2018:8).
• Emotions: Described as short-lived subjective feelings of varying intensity triggered by nervous system arousal in response to a perceived event (Walsh, 2015:99). They involve four interconnected aspects: feelings, arousal, purpose, and expression.
• Extrinsic: These are external factors or motivators, such as incentives and penalties, that drive a person to act (Filiminov, 2017:9).
• Incentive: An external stimulus, such as a condition or object, that encourages or motivates behaviour. It acts as a reward to promote specific actions. A "positive incentive" is an outcome an individual seeks to attain, while a "negative incentive" is one they seek to avoid (Filimonov, 2017:19; APA, 2018).
• Intrinsic: Motivation that originates from within an individual, such as engaging in an activity because it is enjoyable or personally meaningful (Filiminov, 2017:9).
• Motivation: The drive to complete a task, powered by enthusiasm and determination. it functions as the impulse for an individual to take initiative and achieve objectives. It includes both intrinsic and extrinsic factors (Bandhu et al., 2024:1).
• Motive: An internal motivation behind behaviour representing the purpose for an action, often connected to a specific goal like power, greed, jealousy, or revenge (Tatar, 2023:157).
• Needs: Conditions within an individual essential for maintaining life, supporting growth, and promoting well-being (Reeve, 2018:8).

EXPLAINING INTERNAL MOTIVES

• Reeve’s Model (2018): Motives are internal processes that energise, direct, and sustain behaviour. They serve as the common ground shared by needs, cognitions, and emotions.
• Needs as Motives:     * Biological Needs: Examples include hunger and thirst, which are driven by the body's requirement for food and $H_{2}O$ (nutrients essential for survival).     * Psychological Needs: Competence and belonging are vital for development. Competence refers to the need for environmental mastery, while belonging refers to warm interpersonal connections.     * Functions: Needs create wants and goals for survival/growth and provide satisfaction when fulfilled.     * Criminal Implication: If a person lacks money to meet the biological need of hunger, they may resort to stealing or sex work. If psychological needs like belonging are not met at home or school, an individual might join a gang.
• Cognitions as Motives:     * Negative cognitions (e.g., prior failures) can lead to a lack of confidence. For instance, a released offender's plan for reintegration is shaped by their belief in their skills. If they have negative expectations, they may doubt their capacity to succeed in society.
• Emotions as Motives:     * The Four Components of Emotion:         1. Feelings: Subjective, verbal descriptions of the experience.         2. Arousal: Bodily mobilisation to cope with demands (e.g., faster heart rate).         3. Purpose: The motivational urge to accomplish something specific in the moment (e.g., the urge to escape).         4. Expression: Nonverbal communication of the experience (e.g., facial expressions).     * Criminal Implication: Social emotions form the core of the "conscience." Criminologists like Walsh (2015) argue that a lack of functioning social emotions is more concerning than an absence of rationality. Criminals often know right from wrong intellectually but disregard it due to weak social emotions.

MASLOW'S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

• Origin: Developed by Abraham Harold Maslow, initially presented in the 1943 book Motivation and Personality and expanded into a comprehensive model by 1970.
• Structure: A pyramid of five levels from highest priority (foundation) to lowest priority (peak).
• The Five Levels:     1. Physiological Needs: The foundation including food, water, shelter, sleep, and sexual activity. Severe deficiency makes these the primary motivation.     2. Safety Needs: Security, stability, and protection. For children, a loving home without violence or abuse is essential for fulfilling this need.     3. Love and Belonging: Emotional bonds, friendships, family, and community involve both giving and receiving love.     4. Esteem Needs: Two aspects exist: (a) internal drive for self-competence, confidence, and autonomy; and (b) external craving for acknowledgement and respect. Failure results in feelings of inferiority.     5. Self-actualisation: The realization of inherent potential and unique talents (artistic, athletic, or intellectual). This is only possible once all lower levels are fulfilled.
• Conclusion: Unmet needs (e.g., lack of food) drive behaviour and can lead to criminal patterns.

EXTERNAL MOTIVES: INCENTIVE THEORY OF MOTIVATION

• Behaviorist Foundation: Based on B.F. Skinner’s work (Behavior of Organisms, 1938). Skinner argued internal states do not affect motivation; reinforcement increases behaviour while punishment decreases it.
• External Rewards: Behaviour is driven by desires for money, food, praise, or social recognition. This aligns with Rational Choice Theory, where offenders weigh costs and benefits.
• Types of Incentives:     * Positive Incentives: Desirable rewards.     * Negative Incentives: Undesirable punishments.
• Examples of External Motives:     * Gangs: Perceived benefits of money, power, and an exciting lifestyle attract and retain members.     * Contract Killing: A woman may offer a large sum of money to have someone kill an abusive husband.     * Syndicates: Targeting unemployed youth for car hijacking or drug smuggling for material gain.     * Sex Work: Money as a strong incentive for desperate individuals.

MOTIVES RELATED TO SPECIFIC CRIMES

• Rape (Groth's Typology, 1979):     * Power Rapist ($55\%$ of cases): Motivated by dominance and control to prove masculinity. Force is minimal (only what is required to subdue). Sexual penetration symbolises strength and mastery rather than pleasure. May hold victims hostage.     * Anger Rapist ($40\%$ of cases): Motivated by intense hostility and resentment toward women. Attacks are sudden, physically ruthless, and exceed necessity for restraint. Aims to hurt/degrade; sexual acts like fellatio or sodomy are used to defile the victim. Sex is viewed as ‘dirty.’     * Sadistic Rapist ($5\%$ of cases): Eroticises anger and pain. Satisfaction comes from the victim's suffering, distress, and torment. Involves bondage, cutting, burning, or flagellation. Victims often face severe injury or death.
• Hate Crimes: Xenophobia:     * Definition: Excessive or unjustified fear/hatred of foreigners or outsiders.     * Stats in South Africa: Persistent since 1994. The 2008 outbreak included at least $150\,incidents$. Averagely, $59\,cases$ are reported annually.     * Motive: To drive foreign populations out of local communities rather than mere criminal opportunism.
• Revenge-Motivated Crimes: Revenge Porn:     * Non-consensual Pornography: Distributing sexually explicit images without permission.     * Methods: Consensual creation during a relationship vs. non-consensual (hacking/surveillance).     * Sexting: Defined as electronic sharing of sexually explicit messages or photos between mobile phones.
• Jealousy-Motivated Crimes:     * Domestic Violence: Can lead to manipulative/controlling behavior.     * Crime of Passion: Impulsive acts committed during intense emotional stress or sudden rage, resulting in ‘temporary insanity.’ These are usually unplanned and spontaneous (e.g., witnessing a spouse’s infidelity).

QUESTIONS & DISCUSSION

• Activity 7.1 Questions:     * Question 1: Define the term "motive."     * Question 2: Explain the difference between needs, cognitions, and emotions as specific types of motive.     * Question 3: Critically discuss and provide a schematic representation of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.     * Question 4: Mention the four components of emotional experience and give examples of each.
• Activity 7.2 Question: Provide a summary of each of Groth’s types of rapist (e.g., power, anger, and sadistic).
• Activity 7.3 Questions:     * Question 1: Define ‘xenophobia’ including the United Nations definition.     * Question 2: What are the effects of xenophobia?     * Question 3: Which countries are the top ten with the least racial discrimination, and what is their secret?