Study Notes on Psychological Science and Practice

Personal Reflection
  - Professor Tim Carey shares his journey into psychological science starting from his training as a preschool teacher.
  - He was inspired by influential studies in psychology that include:
    - Milgram's Obedience Studies (1963)
    - Zimbardo's Prison Experiment (1971)
    - Asch's Conformity Research (1951)
    - Rosenhan's "On Being Sane in Insane Places" (1973)
Key Takeaway: These studies exemplified clever procedures which illuminated fundamental principles about human behavior, prompting a lifelong fascination with psychological science.

As his educational journey continued, Carey developed an understanding of the methodological flaws in the aforementioned studies but recognized their importance as demonstrations of human nature.
Power of Innovation and Curiosity
- Carey illustrates psychological science as an avenue of exploration with the potential for surprising outcomes, akin to historic explorers.

Professional Background
- After becoming a preschool teacher and a special education teacher, Carey focused on applying behavioral principles—particularly B.F. Skinner's work.
- Early enthusiasm for Skinner’s principles began to change as he learned about the nuances of his studies.
Skinner’s Principles
  - Reinforcement Schedules: The necessity of preparing subjects (e.g., reducing rats' body weight) for effective behavioral studies.
  - General Principle of Reinforcement: The importance of deprivation in behavior modification—individuals must lack a particular reinforcer to be influenced to behave in a specific way.
  - Countercontrol: Skinner (1953) suggested that attempts to control behavior may lead to counterproductive reactions from subjects.
    - Quote: "Because of the aversive consequences of being controlled, the individual who undertakes to control other people is likely to be countercontrolled by all of them" (p. 321).
    - Emotional reactions such as anger or frustration often arise when individuals feel controlled.

Carey's PhD research focused on the idea of countercontrol in children diagnosed with behavioral disorders, particularly conduct disorder and oppositional defiant disorder.
His study specifically investigated primary school children's responses to their teachers’ control, yielding surprising results (Carey & Bourbon, 2005).
Through this research, Carey discovered the Scientist-Practitioner Model, which harmonizes practice and research in psychology, resonating with his career aspirations.

Upon completing his PhD, Carey practiced as a Chartered Clinical Psychologist in Scotland and questioned the standardization of treatment schedules in psychological practices.
Fortnightly Appointments: Addressing the rationale behind scheduling practices unveiled a substantial waiting list for mental health services and prompted investigation into the effectiveness of treatment length.
Critical Findings:
  - No empirical evidence supported a standardized number of therapy sessions or frequencies (Carey, 2005).
  - Despite guidelines from the UK's National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (2009) suggesting 16 to 20 sessions for CBT, actual treatment sessions average around five.
  - Consequences: Misunderstandings about treatment lengths put undue pressure on clinicians and unnecessarily burden health services.

Carey's exploration led to the formation of a patient-led scheduling model that allowed patients to determine their appointment frequencies.
Results: The patient-led model resulted in:
  - Fewer missed appointments.
  - Increased service capacity (Carey & Mullan, 2007; Carey & Spratt, 2009).
  - Higher patient satisfaction as they scheduled appointments that suited their needs.
  - Dramatic reductions in waiting times—eliminating long waiting lists in some practices.

Despite challenges and political contexts affecting research dissemination, psychological science has shown its ability to produce significant results.
Notable Research: Bruce Alexander's Rat Park project challenged traditional views on addiction, framing the issue as one deeply intertwined with social and psychological conditions.

Engaging fully with psychological science involves tolerating ambiguity and adhering to evidence-based principles, while recognizing that credible research can sometimes yield uncomfortable results.
Critique of Research Hierarchies: Carey references Jadad and Enkin (2007) disputing the elevation of randomized controlled trials as the pinnacle of evidence, emphasizing the importance of context in psychological research.

As a Director of the Australian Psychological Society (APS), Carey emphasizes collaboration within its ranks to enhance psychological research and education.
Initiatives Supported by DPRET: Collaborative efforts, such as the Australian Brain Alliance, highlight the role of psychologists in multifaceted research settings.
Carey's advocacy for patient-led models and continued exploration in psychology demonstrates ongoing commitment to integrating innovative practices in mental health services.

Psychological science should not just be seen as a discipline but as a vital means to understand and address human behavior—an instrument for social improvement and individual well-being.
Ongoing efforts must ensure that psychologists are recognized as key contributors to national discussions and policy-making.

Alexander, B. K. (2010). The globalization of addiction: A study in the poverty of the spirit. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Asch, S. E. (1951). Effects of group pressure on the modification and distortion of judgments. In H. Guetzkow (Ed.), Groups, leadership and men (pp. 177–190). Pittsburgh, PA: Carnegie Press.
Carey, T. A. (2005). Can patients specify treatment parameters? Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 12(4), 326-335.
Carey, T. A., & Bourbon, W. T. (2005). Countercontrol: What do the children say? School Psychology International, 26(5), 595-615.
National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. (2009). Depression: The treatment and management of depression in adults. London, UK: Author.
Rosenhan, D. (1973). On being sane in insane places. Science, 179(4070), 250-258.
Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior. New York: Free Press.
Zimbardo, P. G. (1971). The power and pathology of imprisonment. Congressional Record (Serial No. 15, 1971-10-25). Hearings before Subcommittee No. 3, of the United States House Committee on the Judiciary, Ninety-Second Congress, First Session on Corrections, Part II, Prisons, Prison Reform and Prisoner's Rights: California. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.