Sociology Test 1 Key Terms and Concepts
Sociology & Sociological Perspectives
Sociology is the systematic study of human groups and their social interactions, focusing on how external forces impact individual behavior and choices [1]. It examines the dynamic relationships between individuals and larger social networks [1, 2].
The sociological perspective is a way of viewing the world that emphasizes these relationships [1]. It includes the ability to recognize general social patterns in particular events [3], and to question assumptions behind seemingly rational, everyday social phenomena [3].
Sociological Imagination, coined by C. Wright Mills, is the ability to see how individual challenges are influenced by larger social forces and to understand how personal troubles may stem from larger social issues [4, 5]. This includes a "quality of mind" to look beyond personal circumstances into a social context [4, 5].
Seeing the general in the particular refers to looking at unique events and recognizing larger social patterns [6, 7].
Agency refers to the capacity of individuals to alter their socially constructed lives [7, 8].
Structure refers to the network of stable opportunities and constraints that influence individual behaviors [7, 8].
Macro vs. Micro Approaches
Macrosociology is an approach to understanding society as a whole [1, 9, 10].
Microsociology is an approach to understanding individual or small group dynamics [5, 9].
Historical Development of Sociology
Sociology arose from the need to understand major social changes in Europe, which were brought on by the Scientific, Industrial, and Political Revolutions [11].
The Enlightenment (1650-1799) challenged Christian scholarship, advocating for critical thinking and practical knowledge based on the natural sciences [10, 12, 13]. It promoted human agency and challenged traditional beliefs [13, 14].
The Scientific Revolution (1650-1800) emphasized observation, experimentation, and logical reasoning [11, 15].
The Industrial Revolution (around 1750) brought significant social changes, including capitalism, urbanization, and secularization [14, 16].
The Political Revolution, from the Renaissance to the Enlightenment, emphasized individual rights, social responsibility, equality, and democracy [17].
Positivism vs. Anti-positivism
Positivism is a theoretical approach that considers all understanding to be based on science [7, 15]. Positivists believe in an objective and knowable reality with singular explanations that are value-free [7, 18].
Anti-positivism considers knowledge to be the result of human subjectivity, rejecting positivist assumptions [18, 19]. Anti-positivists argue that science is not value-free [20].
Quantitative sociology tends to be positivist and uses measurable data [19, 20].
Qualitative sociology tends to be anti-positivist and focuses on non-measurable, subjective experiences [19, 20].
Classical Sociological Theories
Functionalism views the social world as a dynamic system of interrelated and interdependent parts [10, 21-23]. Social structures exist to help people fulfill their needs, and society is like an organism that needs all parts working together [21].
Key theorists include Émile Durkheim, Herbert Spencer, Talcott Parsons, and Robert Merton [21, 22].
Social facts are conditions and circumstances external to the individual that determine one's course of action [24-26]. They exist on their own, independent of individual manifestations [25, 27, 28].
Social solidarity is the cohesion of social groups [24, 26]. Mechanical solidarity is based on likeness, common in early societies, while organic solidarity is based on interdependence and the division of labor in later societies [27, 29-32].
Collective conscience is a shared set of beliefs, ideas, and moral attitudes which operate as a unifying force within society [24, 27].
Anomie is a state of normlessness resulting from a lack of clear goals, creating confusion [25, 27, 31].
Social integration is how individuals feel part of a larger social collective [24, 31].
Positivism, as it relates to Durkheim, emphasizes rational, scientific, and measured thinking [24, 26].
Conflict Theory sees society as grounded in inequality and competition, with power unequally distributed [22, 33, 34]. Dominant groups maintain control through ideology [22, 34].
Karl Marx is a key theorist, focusing on class conflict, economic classes, and forces of production [22, 35-37].
Bourgeoisie are the owners of the means of production [35, 38, 39].
Proletariat are the wage laborers who own no property that produces income [35, 40, 41].
Class consciousness is the recognition of domination and oppression that results in collective action [35, 38, 42].
Historical materialism is the idea that material existence fuels historical change, not consciousness [42, 43].
Alienation is the disconnection of workers from what they produce [35, 42, 44].
Exploitation is the difference between what workers are paid and the wealth they create [35, 42, 44].
Ideology is a set of beliefs and values that support and justify the ruling class [44, 45].
False consciousness is the support of the system that oppresses you [44, 45].
Base/Superstructure is a dynamic relationship between the material and social elements of society [38, 42, 46, 47]. The base is the material and economic foundation, while the superstructure includes values, religion, politics, and law [38].
Other concepts include: forces and relations of production [35, 41], dialectics [42, 48], and the Lumpenproletariat [40, 45].
Symbolic Interactionism focuses on how people act based on the meanings things have for them, which are derived from social interaction [49-51].
Key concepts:
Meanings and symbols are learned in social settings [51, 52].
The self is developed through interactions with others [53].
Verstehen is the deep understanding and interpretation of subjective social meanings [54, 55].
Social action includes instrumental-rational, value-rational, affective, and traditional actions [54-57].
Looking-glass self is how we develop our self-image through the cues we receive from others [53, 57].
Dramaturgical analysis focuses on the self as emerging from the performances we play [53, 57].
Key theorists include George Herbert Mead, Charles H. Cooley, and Erving Goffman [50, 53].
Contemporary Social Theories
Contemporary theories often emphasize power and draw on classical theories [58].
Western Marxism emphasizes how forces of production affect both organization and people's experiences [58-60].
Antonio Gramsci's concept of hegemony explains how the ruling class dominates through the permeation of its ideology, which becomes internalized as common sense [47, 59, 61]. It involves ideological control and consent of subordinate classes [62]. Gramsci theorized that dominant groups maintain their power through a mix of coercion and consent [62].
Feminist theories are concerned with gender oppression and the equality of men and women [63-65].
Patriarchy is a system where men control social, political, and economic resources [64, 65].
Standpoint is a concept used by Dorothy Smith that preserves the presence of the subject as an active and experiencing person [65, 66].
Key figures include: Mary Wollstonecraft, Dorothy Smith, Betty Friedan, and Bell Hooks [61, 63-65, 67]
Post-structuralism focuses on how knowledge is socially produced [68, 69].
Michel Foucault is a key theorist focusing on power, knowledge, and discourse [68, 70, 71]. Power is created within social relationships and knowledge is linked to power through discourse, which guides how we think, act, and speak [68, 69, 71, 72].
Post-colonial theory focuses on the political and cultural effects of colonialism [71, 72].
Edward Said's concept of Orientalism describes the West's false opposition between it and the East, where the West is seen as superior [71, 73-75].
Anti-racist theories (including Critical Race Theory) focus on the endemic nature of racism and its systemic effects [70, 75-77]. It emphasizes the importance of historical context and the lived experiences of those affected by racism [61].
Other Key Concepts
Globalization is a worldwide process involving the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services, with capitalism as a defining feature [2, 78, 79].
Rationalization is when social interaction and institutions become governed by methodological procedures and calculable rules [54, 57].