Asian Imperialism
China Resists Outside Influence
- Western economic pressure in the 19th century forced Qing China to confront a global system dominated by industrialized powers.
- China initially resisted Western overtures due to confidence in its cultural achievements and self-sufficient economy.
- The British opium trade, unequal treaties, and military defeats pried open Chinese ports.
- Over the next decades, China oscillated between limited reform and conservative backlash, culminating in nationalist uprisings.
China and the West: Setting the Stage
- 1793: A British mission visited the Qing court with Western technology (clocks, globes, hot-air balloon).
- The Qing emperor dismissed the need for foreign goods, emphasizing cultural superiority and self-sufficiency.
- Trade was strictly limited to the port of Guangzhou.
China and the West: China’s Self-Sufficiency
- Agricultural base: Quick-growing rice from Southeast Asia and American crops (maize, sweet potatoes) supported dense populations.
- Mining and manufacturing: Rich deposits of salt, tin, silver, and iron; produced high-quality silks, cottons, and porcelain.
- Result: Little incentive to import Western goods.
China and the West: The Tea–Opium Connection
- Trade imbalance: High European demand for Chinese tea, silk, and porcelain caused silver to flow into China.
- British response: British merchants smuggled Indian-grown opium into China for nonmedical use.
- By 1835, an estimated 12 million Chinese were addicted.
- Silver flowed out of China to pay for opium, undermining the economy and social order.
China and the West: War Breaks Out
- 1839: Conflict erupted after Chinese appeals to stop the opium trade were ignored.
- Opium War of 1839: British steam-powered gunboats overwhelmed outdated Chinese junks.
- Treaty of Nanjing (1842): Ceded Hong Kong to Britain and opened additional ports.
- Granted extraterritorial rights to foreigners (foreigners were not subject to Chinese law).
- Many Chinese resented the foreign presence and the opium trade.
Growing Internal Problems
- By 1850, population reached about 430 million (a 30% increase in 60 years).
- Agricultural output failed to keep pace, causing widespread hunger.
- Opium addiction eroded productivity and family stability.
- Mounting hardship fueled rebellions against the Qing, whose legitimacy faltered.
The Taiping Rebellion
- Origins: Hong Xiuquan advocated a “Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace” (Taiping) with shared wealth.
- Expansion: By the 1850s, a peasant army of about one million controlled large areas of southeastern China.
- 1853: Taiping forces captured Nanjing and declared it the capital.
- Defeat: Internal factionalism, Qing troops, and British/French forces crushed the rebellion by 1864.
- Human cost: At least 20 million people died.
Foreign Influence Grows: Debates at Court
- Reformers urged adaptation to Western methods; conservatives defended Confucian traditions.
- Dowager Empress Cixi (dominant 1862–1908) supported the Self-Strengthening Movement.
- Self-Strengthening Movement aimed to update education, diplomacy, and the military (built arsenals, gunboats).
- Results were mixed due to limited scope and entrenched resistance.
Foreign Influence Grows: Spheres of Influence and the Open Door
- Late 19th century: European powers and Japan won exclusive “spheres of influence” (zones controlling trade and investment).
- 1899: U.S. Open Door Policy proposed keeping Chinese ports open to merchants of all nations.
- Sought to protect U.S. trading rights and preserve China from formal colonization, but China remained vulnerable.
An Upsurge in Chinese Nationalism: Guangxu’s Reform Attempt (1898)
- June 1898: Young Emperor Guangxu launched the Hundred Days reform (education, economy, military, government).
- Conservative reaction: Dowager Empress Cixi saw reforms as a threat, arrested Guangxu, seized power, and reversed changes.
- Result: No substantive reform; public frustration deepened.
An Upsurge in Chinese Nationalism: The Boxer Rebellion (1899–1901)
- Roots: Secret society called the Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists (“Boxers”) aimed to expel foreigners and punish Chinese Christians.
- Spring 1900: Boxers besieged the foreign legation quarter in Beijing.
- August 1900: A multinational force of 19,000 troops relieved the siege and defeated the Boxers.
- Outcome: Failed militarily but fostered a powerful sense of Chinese nationalism.
An Upsurge in Chinese Nationalism: Beginnings of Reform (1905–1908)
- 1905: Cixi sent officials abroad to study governmental systems.
- 1906: Officials recommended restructuring on a constitutional model (inspired by Japan).
- Court announced steps toward constitutional government, projecting full constitutional government by 1917.
China Resists Outside Influence: Key Terms
- Opium War: 1839–1842 conflict over the opium trade; led to the Treaty of Nanjing.
- Extraterritorial rights: Privileges allowing foreigners to be subject to their home nation’s laws rather than Chinese law.
- Taiping Rebellion: Mid-19th-century peasant rebellion seeking a “Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace.”
- Sphere of influence: Region where a foreign power claims exclusive rights to trade and investment.
- Open Door Policy: 1899 U.S. policy advocating equal trading rights in China.
- Boxer Rebellion: 1899–1901 anti-foreign uprising crushed by an international coalition.
China Resists Outside Influence: Important Dates
- 1793: British mission to Qing court rebuffed.
- 1835: Opium addiction reaches ~12 million Chinese.
- 1839: Opium War begins.
- 1842: Treaty of Nanjing; Hong Kong ceded to Britain.
- 1850–1864: Taiping Rebellion.
- 1898: Guangxu’s Hundred Days reform; reversed by Cixi.
- 1899: U.S. announces Open Door Policy.
- 1900: Boxer siege of Beijing.
- 1905–1906: Qing missions abroad; recommendations for constitutional reform.
Imperial China Collapses: Overview
- Collapse of imperial rule led to a fragile republic and competing visions for modernization.
- Nationalists (Kuomintang) and Communists emerged as rival forces.
- External pressures (WWI settlements, Japanese aggression) intensified domestic conflict.
- The social base of revolution shifted from urban elites to rural peasants under Mao Zedong.
Fall of the Qing Dynasty and Formation of the Republic (1911–1916)
- 1911: Sun Yixian (Sun Yat-sen) leads the revolution ending imperial rule; establishes the Republic of China.
- Leadership passes to General Yuan Shikai, who attempts to centralize power and flirts with monarchical restoration.
- Weaknesses: Weak central rule, fragmented authority among regional warlords, unequal treaties persist.
- 1916: Death of Yuan Shikai creates a power vacuum, triggering the Warlord Era and civil war conditions.
World War I’s Impact and the May Fourth Movement (1917–1919)
- China entered WWI on the Allied side, expecting restored sovereignty.
- Versailles settlement transferred German concessions in Shandong to Japan instead of China.
- May Fourth Movement (1919): Student-led protests in Beijing against imperialism and Versailles betrayal.
- Called for national sovereignty, modernization, and cultural renewal; fueled anti-warlord/anti-imperialist sentiment.
- Fostered the environment for the Communist Party’s emergence.
Rise of the Communist Party and Mao’s Peasant Strategy
- Chinese Communist Party (CCP) formed inspired by May Fourth currents and Marxist ideas.
- Mao Zedong’s strategy: Peasant-centered revolutionary approach (distinct from urban proletariat focus).
- Emphasized guerrilla warfare, land reform, and mobilization of the rural poor in countryside base areas.
Civil War Between Nationalists and Communists
- Kuomintang (KMT) under Jiang Jieshi (Chiang Kai-shek) consolidated control, prioritizing military unification.
- Initial cooperation against warlords shifted to anti-Communist purges.
- Armed clashes escalated into sustained civil war; urban suppression pushed Communists to rural strongholds.
The Long March (1934–1935)
- Context: KMT encirclement campaigns threatened CCP base areas; CCP undertook strategic retreat.
- Route: ~6,000-mile trek across difficult terrain toward northwestern China.
- Outcomes: Heavy attrition, but survival of core leadership and consolidation of Mao Zedong’s leadership.
- Legacy: Became a powerful propaganda narrative of endurance and revolutionary resolve.
Japanese Invasion and Temporary Truce (1931–1938)
- 1931: Japan invaded Manchuria; escalating threat to national sovereignty.
- National priority shifted toward resisting foreign aggression.
- United Front: CCP and KMT agreed to suspend hostilities to confront Japan (mid-1930s).
- 1937: Marco Polo Bridge Incident sparked full-scale war; truce sustained wartime coordination despite underlying rivalries.
Imperial China Collapses: Key Figures
- Sun Yixian: Revolutionary leader; founder of the Republic of China (1911).
- Jiang Jieshi: KMT leader after Sun; centralized authority, led campaigns against warlords and CCP.
- Mao Zedong: CCP leader advocating peasant-based revolution; emerged as paramount leader during Long March.
- General Yuan Shikai: Military strongman; death in 1916 triggered civil war conditions.
Imperial China Collapses: Key Terms
- Kuomintang (KMT): Nationalist Party seeking unification and modernization.
- Chinese Communist Party (CCP): Revolutionary party advocating socialism; peasant mobilization under Mao.
- Warlord Era: Period of fragmented regional control following Yuan Shikai’s death.
- May Fourth Movement: 1919 student-led protests; anti-imperialist, pro-modernization wave.
- Long March: 1934–1935 CCP strategic retreat; foundational mythos of resilience.
- United Front: Temporary KMT–CCP cooperation against Japanese aggression.
Communists Take Power in China: Introduction
- Roots of the Communist revolution are embedded in the chaos of WWII and the fragile alliance between domestic rivals.
- Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945): China suffered