u.s. history midterm
The First British Settlements:
Jamestown was the first successful English settlement in North America
Established on an island in the James River in Virginia in 1607
Founded by the London Company
Settlers suffered until learned to grow tobacco to ship back to England
Second successful English colony was founded at Plymouth Bay in Massachusetts
Pilgrims
Strict Protestants who wished to separate from the Church of England
Before landing, 41 adults on the Mayflower (their ship) signed the Mayflower Compact
A written agreement
Established rules and laws for colony by majority rule
Early example of self-government in colonies
“…frame, such just and equal Laws… for the General good of the Colony”
~ Mayflower Compact
More Examples of “Democratic” Traditions in British Colonial America:
Magna Carta of 1215
Yes, a document from the Middle Ages in England, but…
King promised not to imprison nobles or townspeople except according to the laws of the land
Limited the power of the king
Yes, a Parliament in England but …
Representative legislature
Established the idea of consent of the governed (people vote)
Examples of Colonial Self-Government
Mayflower Compact
- Established a colonial government deriving power from consent of governed
House of Burgesses
Colonial Virginia
Elected representatives helped govern colony
New England Town Meetings
People expressed concerns; made decisions for the town
“I know not what course others may take, but as for me, give me liberty, or give me death.”~ Patrick Henry
Geography of Thirteen Colonies:
“Geography is an earthly subject, but a heavenly science.”
~ Edmund Burke
A Bit More American Geography:
Appalachian Mountains
Thirteen colonies were located east of the Appalachian Mountains
British issued the Proclamation Line of 1763
To forbid settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains
To avoid conflict with Native American Indians
The Great Plains:
Acquired as a result of the Louisiana Purchase
Grasslands or flat lands with grasses
From the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains
Farming and herding
Breadbasket or grain-basket of the nation
Colonial America:
Indentured Servant:
Signed a contract to work for a period of time in exchange for passage to North America
Mercantilism:
Belief that colonies exist for the benefit of the mother country
Colonies must trade with the mother country
Colonies must export natural resources or raw materials to the mother country and import the mother country’s finished goods
Salutary Neglect:
Because England was busy with other pressing issues in the 17th century, largely ignored colonies
England did not act like a mother country towards 13 colonies at this time
Colonies given a great amount of economic freedom and self-government
The Middle Passage:
Plantations in South depended on slave labor from Africa
The Middle Passage was the slave’s forced journey from Africa to Americas
John Peter Zenger Trial:
John Peter Zenger published a newspaper
Critical of colonial governor
Blamed for criticism and content of newspaper
But jury concluded that criticisms were factual
Acquitted – freed from criminal charges
Great victory for freedom of the press
The Albany Plan of the Union:
Drafted by Benjamin Franklin
Proposed that colonies unite in a permanent union for defense in dealing with growing French influence in Ohio Valley
Although the Plan failed, it introduced the concept of a federal plan of representative government and colonial cooperation
The French and Indian War:
Britain versus France (1754-1763)
Part of a larger battle over colonies
Native American allies on both sides
Britain won and gained Canada
But Britain incurred a great debt (war is costly!)
Causes of the Revolution or the End of Salutary Neglect:
To help pay off their war debt, the British Parliament imposed new taxes on the colonies
The Stamp Act (1765)
required colonial newspapers, books and documents to carry an official government stamp
Colonists objected since they were not represented in Parliament
Parliament repealed tax; replaced it with taxes on paper, glass, and tea
When the British repealed all taxes except the one on tea, in 1773, a group threw tea off a British ship in Boston harbor (Boston Tea Party)
The Intolerable Acts:
These British acts punished the colonists for their behavior at the Boston Tea Party
Boston harbor was closed
The colonists had to pay for the destroyed tea
British troops could stay in peoples’ homes (quartering)
The First Continental Congress:
On a call from Virginia, all the colonies except Georgia sent delegates to a Continental Congress
Met at Carpenters Hall in Philadelphia on September 5, 1774
Divided between those who favored resistance and those who advocated conciliation
“I challenge the warmest advocate for reconciliation to show a single advantage that this continent can reap by being connected with Great Britain. I repeat the challenge; not a single advantage is derived. Our corn will fetch its price in any market in Europe, and our imported goods must be paid for buy them where we will.” ~ Thomas Paine
Thomas Paine and Common Sense:
Pamphlet: Common Sense
Wrote that it was ridiculous for the American colonies, located on a huge continent, to be governed by a tiny far-off island like Great Britain
Paine argued that it was “common sense” for the colonies to seek independence
The Declaration of Independence, 1776:
Influenced by ideas and principles of the European Enlightenment or Age of Reason
Influenced by John Locke (natural rights to life, liberty, and property) and Montesquieu (separation of powers)
Influenced by idea of “consent of the governed” or voting
Government derives or gets its power from the people
Also included a long list of grievances or complaints against King George III
Written by Thomas Jefferson
“We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. – That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed…”
~ Declaration of Independence
Formally adopted by the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia on July 4, 1776
Explained why the colonists had declared independence from Britain
The Articles of Confederation:
1781 while the Revolutionary War was still being fought
The confederation was a weak, loose association of independent states
Each state sent one representative to the Confederation Congress, where it had one vote
There was no national executive or court
A weakness was that the Congress could not levy national taxes, regulate trade, or enforce its laws
Each state government was more powerful than the new national government
The Northwest Ordinance:
The Confederation Congress passed the Northwest Ordinance (1787)
Provided a system for admitting new states into the union
Shays’ Rebellion:
Western Massachusetts
Convinced Americans that changes in the national government were necessary
Farmers crushed by demands for payment of debts joined together, rebelled, attacked a federal arsenal but stopped by state troops
Yet a reminder of the need for a stronger federal government
Constitutional Convention:
Delegates from twelve states met in Philadelphia in 1787
Decided to abandon the Articles of Confederation
Agreed on the need for a stronger central government
The Great Compromise:
Large and small states differed on the method for each state’s representation
This Connecticut Compromise resolved the conflict
Created a bicameral (two-house) Congress
* Number of representatives in House of Representatives based on state’s population
* But two senators for every state
Three-Fifths Compromise:
Three-fifths of the slave population in a state would be counted for the purposes of representation and taxation
The Census:
Taken every ten years to determine each state’s population for purposes of representation
Antifederalists:
Feared a strong central government
Objected to new constitution – claimed it created too powerful a government
Lacked protections for individual rights (lacked a Bill of Rights)
Preferred increasing the power of the states
Federalists:
Favored the ratification (approval) of the Constitution
Believed in a strong central government
Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, John Jay, and George Washington
Federalist Papers:
85 published essays arguing for the need for a strong Constitution
Alexander Hamilton argued in favor of Constitution in The Federalist Papers
Authors claimed that a stronger government was needed to protect against rebellion or foreign attack and to regulate interstate trade
Said citizens should not fear the new government, since its power was divided among three separate branches of government
Popular Sovereignty:
Idea that government is created by the people and subject to the will of the people
- Most basic principle of Constitution is that the power of government is held by the people
- This is reflected in the first words of the Preamble: “We the people…”
Preamble U.S. Constitution:
“We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.”
Federalism:
A system of sharing power between the national and state governments
Some powers are concurrent powers, such as the power to tax, are held by both the federal and state governments
reserved powers are those held exclusively by state governments
Elastic Clause:
In the Constitution
Expands the powers of the federal government
Gives Congress additional powers to do what is “necessary and proper” for carrying out its responsibilities
Also called implied powers
The Bill of Rights:
First ten amendments of the Constitution
Include the right to freedom of speech, the right to bear arms, and the right to a trial by jury
“Checks and Balances”:
To prevent the national government from having too much power
Government is divided into three branches [executive, legislative, and judicial]
Yet each branch of government can limit the power of the other branches
To check is to limit
Strict Constructionist:
Individuals who felt that the Constitution should be read literally
Believed the elastic clause should be used only for expanding the powers of Congress in cases where the expansion is absolutely necessary
Loose Constructionist:
Individuals who held the belief that the Constitution and specifically the elastic clause should be read broadly
And that the framers intended the elastic clause to mean that Congress should have the “proper” powers resulting from its other powers
The Flexibility of the Constitution:
The Constitution has the ability to adapt to changing situations
The Constitution can be changed by amendment
To prevent changes for unimportant reasons, the amending process was made much more difficult than the passage of an ordinary law
After Congress votes for a Constitutional amendment, three-quarters or three-fourths of the states must ratify it
The Unwritten Constitution:
The federal government relies on many practices that developed after the Constitution was put into effect
These practices became customary
Often based on examples or precedents established by George Washington
Examples: the President’s cabinet, political parties, and judicial review
The Legislative Branch:
A bicameral Congress with a House of Representatives and a Senate
Two senators for every state; thus, 100 senators
435 representatives in House of Representatives based population of states (determined by census)
Two-thirds of the Senate is needed to ratify treaties negotiated by the President and the Senate must also confirm all Presidential appointments
Representatives in Congress or the legislative branch make laws
The Executive Branch:
The Presidency is the Executive Branch of government
The President must be a natural-born citizen who is at least 35 years old
Traditionally, Presidents only served two terms of office, until Franklin D. Roosevelt was elected four times
In 1951, the Twenty-second Amendment limited a President to two terms
The President is Chief Executive, Chief of State, Commander-in-Chief, foreign policy chief, chief legislator, and chief of a political party
The Judicial Branch:
Federal courts form the Judicial Branch of government
The U.S. Supreme Court is our highest federal court
Has nine members, each nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate
Can review lower-court decisions that come before it on appeal
Judicial Review:
The power of the Supreme Court to determine the constitutionality of a law
The Supreme Court has the power to determine that a law is unconstitutional
Chief Justice John Marshall (1801 – 1835) introduced judicial review
Helped establish the importance of the federal judiciary and the supremacy of the national government over the states
Marbury v. Madison:
Supreme Court case (1803) with Chief Justice John Marshall
Established the principle of judicial review
Strengthening Supreme Court’s role as the final interpreter of the Constitution
McCulloch v. Maryland
Supreme Court case (1819) with Chief Justice John Marshall
Court ruled that a state could not tax an agency of the national government, such as a branch of the national bank
The Court said that when a state law conflicts with a federal law, the federal law is supreme
Gibbons v. Ogden:
Supreme court case (1824) with Chief Justice John Marshall
The Court supported the Constitution’s statement that only Congress has the power to regulate interstate commerce
The Electoral College:
The members of the Constitutional Convention did not trust the people to elect the President directly;
They turned selection of the President to electors who form the Electoral College
To become President, candidate needs to win majority of Electoral College votes
The number of electors each state has is equal to the number of its Representatives in the House combined with the number of its Senators
The candidate with the most votes in a state wins all of the electors of that state
Sometimes the popular vote is less than the electoral vote but the President must win a majority of the electoral vote!
A List of Some of the 27 Amendments Commonly Asked on Examinations:
From Bill of Rights:
1st – Freedom of speech and press, religion, assembly, and right to petition the government
2nd – To bear arms (carry firearms/guns)
4th – Protections against unreasonable searches and seizures
5th – Right to Due Process (Fair treatment in court – to be charged with a crime, to have a trial, to have an impartial jury, etc.) and a Person cannot be charged twice for the same crime (freedom from double-jeopardy)
6th – Right to a fair trial and attorney
10th – Division of power between states and federal government (federalism)
Added after the Civil War:
13th – Abolished slavery
14th – Equal rights for citizens
15th – Universal Male Suffrage (all male citizens have right to vote)
Progressive Era Amendments:
16th – Graduated Income Tax (the more you make, the more you pay)
17th – Direct Election of Senators
18th – Prohibition (No alcohol)
19th – Women’s suffrage
Alexander Hamilton:
Federalist; supported a loose construction of the Constitution, a National Bank, tariffs, and a strong federal government
Thomas Jefferson:
Favored a “strict construction” of the Constitution
Opposed a national bank for nowhere in the Constitution was a bank mentioned
Division over the National Bank led to the formation of the first political parties
Purchased the Louisiana Territory (more on this topic later!)
Whiskey Rebellion:
Secretary of the Treasury, Alexander Hamilton, proposed a tax on whiskey to raise money for the national debt
Small farmers distilled whiskey and resisted the tax
Attacked federal revenue officers who attempted to collect it
President George Washington issued a congressionally authorized proclamation ordering the rebels to return home and calling for militia
Washington ordered troops to stop rebellion, but opposition melted
Demonstrated power of federal government to insure domestic tranquility
Washington’s Farewell Address:
Britain and France were often at war with each other
Washington cautioned against entering into a permanent alliance with any European country; encouraged neutrality and isolationism
The Louisiana Purchase:
1803: France offered to sell Louisiana Territory to USA for $15 million
Although Jefferson was not sure if the Constitution allowed the federal government to buy territory, he went ahead with the purchase
Doubled the size of the United States
Gained full control of the Mississippi River, the port of New Orleans (connecting the Mississippi River to the Gulf of Mexico), and the Great Plains
Lewis and Clark and Sacagawea:
Explored the new Louisiana Territory and went as far as the Pacific Ocean
Maps were produced of the new territory
These maps encouraged westward expansion
The War of 1812:
Britain vs. USA
Causes: to prevent the British seizure of American sailors (impressment), to stop British support of Native American Indian raids in the Northwest Territory, and to try to seize British Canada
During the war, the English burned the capitol, Washington
War is often called the “Second War for American Independence”
The Treaty ended the war but no land changes occurred
Americans gained a sense of pride and respect and nationalistic fervor
Francis Scott Key wrote his poem, Defence of Fort M’Henry (McHenry) – it became the U.S. National Anthem
The Monroe Doctrine:
After many nations in Latin America gained independence from Spain, President Monroe issued the Monroe Doctrine
It stated that the Americas were closed to future colonization
The Americas were off limits to would-be European conquerors
Aimed to make the US the dominant power in the western Hemisphere
Andrew Jackson:
Elected President in 1828
First President not born to wealth and not from an Eastern state
His main supporters were ordinary people
Jackson’s two terms in office saw an expansion of democracy
States eliminated property qualifications, allowing most adult males to vote
Jackson developed the spoils system
Supporters of his campaign and presidency were rewarded with government jobs
Jackson also forced the National Bank to close
Believed it gave an unfair advantage to Eastern bankers and investors
Enacted the Indian Removal Act
Indian Removal Act:
President Andrew Jackson moved all remaining Native American Indians to territories west of the Mississippi River
Jackson refused to help the Cherokees of Georgia even though the Supreme Court declared that their forcible removal was unconstitutional
Worcester v. Georgia:
Even though the Supreme Court ruled in favor of the Cherokee in Worcester v. Georgia, the Cherokee were forcibly removed from their lands
The Trail of Tears:
In 1838 and 1839, as part of Andrew Jackson’s Indian removal policy, the Cherokee nation was forced to give up its lands east of the Mississippi River and to migrate to an area in present-day Oklahoma
The Cherokee people called this journey the “Trail of Tears,” because of its devastating effects
The migrants faced hunger, disease, and exhaustion on the forced march
Over 4,000 out of 15,000 of the Cherokees died
The Nullification Proclamation:
Issued by President Andrew Jackson
Stated that states are forbidden from nullifying federal laws
To nullify a federal law means to invalidate it or to not accept it
Jackson believed the federal government was supreme
While Southern states did not like certain tariffs or taxes on imported goods, Jackson believed that states must obey federal laws
Manifest Destiny:
American Belief in the 1840s
The United States should extend its borders from the Atlantic to the Pacific
Encouraged westward expansion
Texas:
Americans had settled in Texas before 1836
Mexico hoped American settlers would become Mexicans
American settlers declared independence; in 1845, President John Tyler annexed Texas as a state (became a slave state)
The Mexican American War:
In 1846, war broke out between the U.S. and Mexico over the border of Texas
In the Mexican-American War (1846 – 1848), Mexico was quickly defeated
Mexico was forced to give up California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, and parts of Colorado and New Mexico
The Gadsden Purchase:
In 1853, the Gadsden Purchase from Mexico completed U.S. expansion in southwest
Mexico gave the United States southern Arizona and southern New Mexico in exchange for $10,000,000
54º40' or Fight:
President James K. Polk wanted more land north of Oregon, believing that the border between the U.S. and Canada was at the 54º40' latitude line
Britain insisted the border was further south at 42º
The Americans threatened “54º40' or fight” but settled at 49º latitude line
Another example of Manifest Destiny and westward expansion
The Oregon Territory:
In an agreement with Great Britain in 1846, the line dividing Canada and the United States was extended westward to the Pacific, giving the U.S. part of the
Sectionalism:
By the early 19th century, each section of U.S. had developed its own characteristics
These differences led to the rise of sectionalism or the greater loyalty many Americans felt towards their own particular section (North, South, or West) than the country as a whole
Slavery and tariffs were viewed differently in different regions of the nation
Temperance:
A movement in the mid-nineteenth century that looked to rid society of alcohol
Viewed alcohol as a vice or immoral leading to crime and destruction of families
Eventually led to ratification of the Eighteenth Amendment in 1919 which prohibited or banned alcohol
But the Eighteenth Amendment was repealed or declared invalid by the Twenty-First Amendment
Seneca Falls Convention:
An important meeting at Seneca Falls, New York in 1848
Led by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott
A movement for women’s rights
In the years after the Convention, focused more on gaining the vote for women
Susan B. Anthony became a leader women’s suffrage movement [suffrage means the right to vote]
Dorothea Dix:
A social reformer; fought for the better treatment of mentally ill patients in asylums
Antebellum:
Means existing before the war…In U.S refers to the period before the Civil War
Abolitionists:
Wanted an end to slavery
Harriet Beecher Stowe:
Abolitionist…Wrote Uncle Tom’s Cabin
Helped spread moral outrage against slavery in the North
Frederick Douglass:
Abolitionist and former slave (escaped to freedom)
Lectured about the evils of slavery
Autobiography titled Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass
Published an abolitionist paper, The North Star
Harriet Tubman:
Abolitionist and former slave (escaped to freedom)
Conductor on the Underground Railroad, a network of escape routes and safe houses to help bring an escaped slave to freedom in the North
After passage of the Fugitive Slave Act, escaped slaves were brought to Canada to ensure their freedom
The Missouri Compromise:
Between 1820 and 1850, national unity was preserved by admitting new states in a series of compromises that tried to maintain a balance between slave and free states
The Missouri Compromise allowed Maine to enter the Union as a free state and Missouri to be admitted without restrictions on slavery
The area north of Missouri Compromise line of 36°30′ was to be free of slavery
The Compromise of 1850:
To keep a balance between slave and free states
California was admitted to the Union as a free state after the Gold Rush of 1849
The slave trade was abolished in the District of Columbia
The territories of New Mexico and Utah were organized under popular sovereignty (the people of the state voted on whether to be free or slave states)
The Fugitive Slave Act was passed
Required that runaway slaves be returned to their masters
The Kansas-Nebraska Act:
Abandoned the Missouri Compromise
Established the idea of deciding whether a state should be a free state or a slave state through popular sovereignty (the people of the state would vote and decide whether the state would permit slavery or not permit slavery)
“Bleeding Kansas”:
There was fighting in Kansas over the issue of slavery
Both pro-slavery and anti-slavery groups were strong in Kansas
Fighting resulted
The Republican Party:
A new political party
Main goal was to stop the spread of slavery in the west
William Lloyd Garrison:
Abolitionist
From 1831-1865, published The Liberator, an anti-slavery newspaper
Founder of the American Anti-Slavery Society
Also favored increasing rights for women
Dred Scott v. Sanford:
Supreme Court case, 1857
Dred Scott was a slave who had been taken by his owner to a free state
Scott sued for freedom in court and appealed to the Supreme Court
Claimed that because he lived on free soil, he was free
Supreme Court held that Scott was not a citizen of the United States or and could not sue in federal courts
Court went on to say that Dred Scott’s temporary residence in a free state did not make him free, and the Congress could not outlaw slavery since slavery was recognized in Constitution and private property was protected
Made the Missouri Compromise unconstitutional
After the Civil War, the 13th amendment to the Constitution abolished slavery
John Brown:
Abolitionist who believed one should fight the evil of slavery
Organized a raid on the federal arsenal at Harper’s Ferry, Virginia, in October 1859, hoping to seize weapons to arm slaves and start an uprising
Was captured, tried, and executed
Became a martyr in the North but frightened Southern plantation owners
The Election of President Abraham Lincoln:
When the Republican Presidential candidate Abraham Lincoln was elected in 1860, most Southern states seceded (withdrew) from the United States
The seceding states formed the Confederate States of America
Lincoln refused to recognize the secession of the South
Lincoln resolved to preserve the unity of the United States
The Causes of the Civil War:
Slavery and sectionalism
The creation of the Republican party
Failure of slave compromises
The election of Lincoln in 1860
Secession began on December 20, 1860
The Civil War:
Began on April 12, 1861 when the Confederate States of America attacked the federal fort, Fort Sumter, in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina
Eleven Southern states joined the Confederacy
Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina as well as Texas, Arkansas, North Carolina, Tennessee and Virginia
The Union
Maine, New York, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Kansas, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, California, Nevada, and Oregon
And Kentucky, Maryland, Delaware and Missouri (the Border States) remained in the Union, and what is now West Virginia broke off from the state of Virginia during the war to form a new state to join the Union
The Civil War was bloody
1861 – 1865
The North had immense long-term advantages: a larger population, more money, more railroad lines, greater manufacturing facilities, and superior naval power
Yet despite advantages, it took the North four years to defeat the South
The Emancipation Proclamation (January 1, 1863):
Lincoln announced that all slaves in states still in rebellion would be freed
The Proclamation gave a moral purpose to the war
However, it soon became unclear whether Lincoln had power to free the slaves
Congress proposed the Thirteenth Amendment
When it was ratified in 1865, it abolished slavery throughout the United States
The Gettysburg Address:
A famous speech delivered by President Abraham Lincoln at the dedication (November 19, 1863) of the National Cemetery at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, the site of one of the decisive battles of the American Civil War (July 1–3, 1863)
“Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.”
Reconstruction:
The name given to the process of reestablishing the Union to again include the seceded states, began during the war and lasted until 1877
The South’s infrastructure had to be rebuilt
African Americans needed to be given Constitutional rights
To be readmitted to the Union, South had to agree to follow the Constitution
Lincoln’s Lenient Plan for Reconstruction:
Lincoln believed secession was unconstitutional, and so legally, the Southern states were still in the Union
He believed the executive branch, particularly the president, should establish the process of reconstruction and the terms should be generous
“With malice toward none; with charity for all; with firmness in the right, as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in; to bind up the nation’s wounds; to care for him who shall have borne the battle, and for his widow, and his orphan—to do all which may achieve and cherish a just, and a lasting peace, among ourselves, and with all nations.” ~ Abraham Lincoln
Radical Republicans:
Led by Senator Charles Sumner and Congressman Thaddeus Stevens
Intolerant of slavery, abolitionist, and wanted the South to “pay” for the war
Disagreed with Lincoln’s plan for Reconstruction
The Assassination of Abraham Lincoln and Conflict over Reconstruction:
John Wilkes Booth assassinated Abraham Lincoln on April 14, 1865
- Andrew Johnson became President
- Both Lincoln and Johnson favored lenient Reconstruction
- The Radical Republicans disagreed and wanted harsh Reconstruction; they wanted to punish the South and give freed slaves constitutional rights
The Freedmen’s Bureau:
Established in 1865
Looked to adjust newly-freed African Americans to Southern society
Aimed to help with housing, education, food, healthcare, and jobs
President Johnson later vetoed a bill in 1866 that would have increased the Bureau’s power
Black Codes:
Southern states passed Black Codes to preserve traditional Southern lifestyles despite the ban on slavery
Black Codes made it illegal for freedmen to hold public office, travel freely or serve on juries
Military Reconstruction:
Passed over President Andrew Johnson’s veto
Divided the South into five districts occupied by Union troops
Forced all former Confederate states to ratify the Fourteenth Amendment and create new state constitutions which would ensure voting rights of former slaves
Southern states had to obey these acts to be readmitted to the Union
Three Important Amendments Due to the Civil War:
Thirteenth Amendment – abolished slavery
Fourteenth Amendment – citizenship to former slaves and equal protection for all citizens under the law
Fifteenth Amendment – right to vote for all male citizens (including former male slaves who were now citizens)
Carpetbaggers:
Northerners who went to the South during Reconstruction to profit from Reconstruction
Scalawags:
Southern whites who collaborated with northern Republicans during Reconstruction
Ku Klux Klan:
White terrorist group targeting black freedmen and their allies
The Impeachment of Andrew Johnson:
The Radical Republicans dislike Johnson, the Democratic President
When Johnson fired the Secretary of War, Edwin M. Stanton, he violated the Tenure of Office Act (the President was supposed to consult with Congress first)
The House of Representatives impeached Johnson (brought him up on charges)
However, the Senate found him not guilty by one vote
The End of Reconstruction (1877):
Reconstruction officially ended when the last remaining Northern troops were withdrawn from the South
Home rule was restored to Southern state governments
Former Confederate leaders could now serve in office
State legislatures quickly moved to bar African Americans from political process
The Solid South:
For over a century after Reconstruction, every Southern State would vote Democratic in Presidential Elections
Share-cropping System:
Plantation owners entered into share-cropping arrangements with former slaves
A sharecropper was a tenant farmer who was provided with credit for seed, tools, etc. and received an agreed share of the value of the crop minus charges
The charges were usually exceptionally high and thus, the sharecropper lived in a state of permanent debt and poverty
Literacy Tests:
Were introduced as a requirement for voting in the South
Most freedmen lacked a formal education and could not pass these tests
Denied African Americans in the South the right to vote
Poll Taxes:
A tax on voting to prevent African Americans from voting in the South
“Grandfather Clauses”:
Stated that if ancestors had voted before the war, then the potential voter did not have to pass a literacy test or paying a tax to vote
These clauses empowered poor whites but not poor African Americans
Jim Crow Laws:
Segregation laws in the South
African Americans were not permitted to ride in the same train cars, attend the same schools, or use any of the same public facilities as whites
Plessy v. Ferguson:
Supreme Court upheld racial segregation (1896) in the South
Court upheld a Louisiana law segregating railroad facilities
Court held that if facilities were separate but equal, the African-American was not deprived of equal protection of the law under the Fourteenth Amendment
Not reversed until Brown v. Board of Education in 1954
Booker T. Washington:
Former slave – Autobiography titled “Up from Slavery”
Believed African Americans should concentrate on first trying to achieve economic independence before seeking full social equality
- In 1881, founded Tuskegee Institute in Alabama for vocation (job) training
W.E.B. DuBois:
Believed African Americans should work for full social equality immediately and not accept an inferior social and economic status
In 1909, DuBois helped form the N.A.A.C.P. (the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) and began editing its journal, The Crisis
The Industrial Revolution:
Instead of producing goods by hand, people worked on machines in factories
Cities grew as people moved into them (urbanization) in order find work
First Transcontinental Railroad:
Linking east and west coasts – was completed in 1869
Railroads connected raw materials to factories and factories to consumers
Construction of the railroads stimulated the iron, steel, and coal industries
Also played a key role in the settlement of the West
Government gave free land grants to railroad companies to encourage construction
Corporation:
New form of business – became popular after Civil War
A corporation is a business organization composed of stockholders
Each stockholder is a partial owner of the corporation, share in profits, and are limited in liability (responsibility)
Entrepreneur:
An individual who brings together land, labor, and capital to create a new business
Gilded Age:
Because of the lavish lifestyles of those who became rich from industry, the period from 1856 to 1900 became known as the Gilded Age
Gilded means covered in gold but not fully golden!
Robber Barons:
Entrepreneurs who used ruthless (cruel) tactics to destroy competition and to keep down worker’s wages
Monopolists!
Examples: Andrew Carnegie and John D. Rockefeller
Andrew Carnegie:
A famous entrepreneur in Gilded Age
1835-1919; worked his way up from a penniless Scottish immigrant
His steel mills ruthlessly undercut all competition; his workers put in 12-hour shifts at low wages - Carnegie hired thugs to crush any attempt to unionize
John D. Rockefeller:
1839-1937; formed the Standard Oil Company in 1870
Rockefeller forced railroad companies to give him special, secret rates for shipping his oil, while they charged his competitors higher prices
Trusts:
Act like monopolies
A monopoly occurs when a single seller dominates a market – no competition, higher prices
Social Darwinism:
Loosely applied Charles Darwin’s Theory of Evolution to economics
Taking Darwin’s suggestions of the survival of the fittest as the determinant in evolution, Social Darwinists believed that those on top in the business world were there because they were the fittest
The rich had survived the battle of the marketplace because they were the best
Believed that the strong must dominate weaker groups
Encouraged laissez-faire or that the government not intervene in the market
Laissez-faire:
“Let them do as they [business] as they please”
The idea that government should not intervene in the market
Businesses should not be regulated or controlled by government
“The Gospel of Wealth”:
Andrew Carnegie’s belief that the rich should use their wealth to benefit society
Encouraging charitable contributions and philanthropy (the desire to promote the welfare of others, expressed especially by the generous donation of money to good causes)
The Interstate Commerce Act:
1887
This new federal law prohibited unfair practices by railroads, such as charging more money for shorter routes
Sherman Anti-Trust Act:
1890
Was passed to check the spread of monopolies
It outlawed unfair monopolistic practices that stifled competition
Treatment of Workers in Early Years of Industrial Revolution:
Safeguards around machinery were inadequate
Thousands of workers were injured or killed in accidents each year
Workers faced a six-day work week of 10 to 14 hours per day
Low wages
Industrial workers could be fired for any reason
There was no unemployment insurance, worker’s compensation, health insurance or old-age insurance
Unions:
An organization of workers that promotes safer working conditions, higher wages, and fewer hours of work (“eight hours for work; eight hours for sleep; eight hours for what we will”)
The Knights of Labor:
1869
One large national union
Skilled and unskilled workers
Under leadership of Terrence Powderly
Called for eight-hour day and graduated income tax
Collapsed after a general strike for an eight-hour day failed in Chicago and the Haymarket Massacre occurred
The Haymarket Affair:
1886
Occurred when labor leaders were blamed when a bomb exploded at a demonstration of striking workers at Haymarket Square in Chicago
Seven police were killed; eight anarchists were later arrested
Four were found guilty and hung, yet no one was found guilty of throwing the bomb
Frightened by the incident, the average American citizen saw a threat to traditional standards of society in the actions of unions
The American Federation of Labor (AFL):
1881
Founded by Samuel Gompers
Only skilled workers
Consisted of associations of skilled workers joined together into a federation
Cigar-makers association + Carpenters association + etc. = AFL
Goals limited to higher wages, safer working conditions, 8-hour work day
Bread and Butter unionism
Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire:
1911
Occurred in New York City sweatshop or factory in which workers work long hours for low wages in unsafe working conditions
145 women died because the factory doors had been bolted shut from the outside
Most of the workers were immigrants
Soon after the fire, Congress passed legislation favorable to unions1
Urbanization:
The movement of people from rural areas to cities
An important result of industrialization
Cities grew so quickly that municipal authorities could not deal with their problems
Large families were crowded into tenements or single-room apartments without heat or lighting
Political Bosses like Boss Tweed:
Cities were often run by corrupt “political machines”
Political bosses provided jobs and services for immigrants and the poor in exchange for their votes
William Marcy “Boss” Tweed was the leader of New York City’s corrupt Tammany Hall political organization during the 1860s and early 1870s
Tweed became a powerful figure in Tammany Hall – New York City’s Democratic political machine
He openly bought votes, encouraged judicial corruption, extracted millions from city contracts, and dominated New York City politics
“Old Immigrants”:
Up until 1880, most immigrants to the USA had come from Northern Europe
In general, these “Old Immigrants” were Protestant, except for Irish Catholics, and most spoke English
“New Immigrants”:
Immigration patterns changed in the 1880s
Railroads and steamships made the voyage to America more affordable
Most “New Immigrants” came from Southern and Eastern Europe, especially Poland, Italy, Austria-Hungary, Greece, and Russia
They were Catholics and Jewish, spoke no English, were poor, and dressed differently from Northern Europeans
Asian immigrants also arrived
Ghettos:
A ghetto is a quarter of a city in which members of a minority group live especially because of social, legal, or economic pressure
However, this isolated minority groups from mainstream American life
Assimilation:
To assimilate is to learn the ways of another culture
The children of the “new immigrants” attended public schools and learned English and American culture
They assimilated
Melting Pot Theory:
A theory of immigration that states when different types of people live together, they gradually create one community
Cultural Pluralism:
A different theory of immigration that states that different groups can live together in a society but still maintain different traditions and interests
Nativism:
Anti-immigrant sentiment
As the “New” immigration increased, nativist hostility mounted
Nativists called for restricted immigration
They argued that “New Immigrants” were inferior to “true” Americans – white, Anglo-Saxon and Protestant
Chinese Exclusion Act:
1882
The first major law restricting immigration to the United States
It was enacted in response to economic fears, especially on the West Coast, where native-born Americans attributed unemployment and declining wages to Chinese workers whom they also viewed as racially inferior
Effectively halted Chinese immigration for ten years and prohibited Chinese from becoming US citizens
The Gentlemen’s Agreement:
1907
Japanese government promised to limit future Japanese immigration
The Gold Rush:
1848
In January, gold was discovered in California
Thus began one of the largest human migrations in history as a half-million people descended upon California (the California Gold Rush) in search of wealth
The Homestead Act:
In 1862, the Homestead Act was passed into law
Any US citizen or intended US citizen could file an application with the government
If accepted, the person would receive 160 acres of government land
The homesteader had to live on the land for five years, build a home, and grow crops
After five years, the homesteader could file for the deed to the land by submitting proof of living there and making improvements to the land
Encouraged westward expansion
The “Indian Wars”:
From 1830 to 1890, federal and state governments followed a policy of pushing Native American Indians from the traditional lands onto government reservations in the West
The “Indian Wars” pitted settlers and federal troops against the tribes, lasted from 1860 to 1890
Reservations were often smaller than the lands from which the tribe was removed, and frequently consisted of undesirable land
Helen Hunt Jackson wrote A Century of Dishonor (1881)
In the book, Ms. Jackson harshly criticized the government for repeatedly breaking its promises to Native American Indians
The Dawes Act (1887):
Many reformers urged that Native American Indians adopt American culture
The Dawes Act split up reservations held communally by Native American tribes
The head of each Native American family received 160 acres
The government held such lands in trust for 25 years, until the recipients could prove themselves self-sufficient farmers
If the family did not succeed at farming, the land reverted back to the federal government for sale, usually to white settlers
Also created federally funded boarding schools designed to assimilate Native American children into white society
Family and cultural ties were practically destroyed by boarding schools, in which children were punished for speaking their native language or performing native rituals
The Grange Movement (The Granger Movement):
Organized by farmers in 1867
Grangers blamed the railroads for their difficulties
Farmers had to ship crops to markets and relied on railroads
Since railroads lacked competition, railroad companies could charge higher rates for short distances
In several Midwestern states, Grangers elected candidates to state legislatures who promised to regulate the railroads
Farmers also faced low prices due to overproduction of crops as well as new machinery which greatly increased production but lowered prices
Munn v. Illinois (1877):
Supreme Court supported state government attempts to regulate railroads
Wabash v. Illinois (1886):
Supreme Court reversed itself in Wabash v. Illinois (1886) and ended state regulation of railroads
Grangers now turned to Congress to regulate railroads
Interstate Commerce Act:
1887
Prohibited railroads from charging different rates to customers shipping goods equal distances and other unfair practices
The railroads became the first industry subject to Federal regulation
The act also established a five-member enforcement board known as the Interstate Commerce Commission
Railroad companies held a natural monopoly in areas that only they serviced
Addressed the problem of railroad monopolies by setting guidelines for how the railroads could do business
The Populist Party:
1892
Farmers gave their support to the new Populist Party
Represented interests of farmers and workers against banking and railroad interests
Believed rich industrialists and bankers had too much influence on government
Party platform included:
Unlimited coinage of silver to raise farm prices and make loans easier to repay
Direct election of Senators
A graduated income tax (taxing wealthy individuals at a higher rate)
Immigration quotas to restrict the influx of newcomers
A shorter work day of eight hours
William Jennings Bryan and the “Cross of Gold” Speech:
In 1896, the Democratic Party nominated William Jennings Bryan for President after he delivered a speech at the Democratic Convention
His “Cross of Gold” speech denounced bankers for “crucifying mankind on a cross of gold”
Although the Populists supported Bryan for President, he lost the election
The Influence of the Populist Party on American History:
Many Populist reforms, such as the graduated income tax and the direct election of Senators, were later passed by other political parties
Illustrates the role often played by third parties in American politics
Third parties often generate new ideas
The Progressives:
In the early decades of the 20th century, Progressives were reformers
Wanted to reform government and use government to advance human welfare
Opposed the abuse of power by political machines and monopolies
Wanted to apply scientific management to solve urban problems
Flourished between 1900 and the start of World War I
Were mainly middle-class city dwellers
Their activities reflected the rising influence of the middle class
The goal was to correct the political and economic injustices that had resulted from America’s industrialization
Muckrakers:
Investigative reporters, writers, and social scientists that exposed government corruption and the abuses of industry
Provided detailed, accurate journalistic accounts of the political and economic corruption and social hardships caused by the power of big business
Important muckrakers were:
Upton Sinclair: Wrote The Jungle (1906) and described the unsanitary practices of the meat-packing industry
Ida Tarbell: Wrote The History of the Standard Oil Company (1902) and showed how John D. Rockefeller’s rise was based on ruthless practices
Jacob Riis: Wrote How the Other Half Lives and photographed and described the appalling conditions of the urban poor
Jane Addams:
Settlement houses were started in slum neighborhoods by Progressives like Jane Addams (Hull House) and Lillian Wald (Henry Street Settlement)
These houses provided such services as child care, nursing the sick, and teaching English to immigrants
Progressive Politicians:
Expanded services to deal with overcrowding, fire hazards, and the lack of public services
In some cities, Progressives introduced new forms of city government to halt corruption
Progressive governors, such as Robert LaFollete in Wisconsin and Theodore Roosevelt in New York, took steps to free their state governments from the corrupting influence of big business
Progressive Political Reforms:
The secret ballot: voters were less subject to pressure and intimidation when they could cast their ballots without anyone knowing who they voted for
Greater participation in government for voters
Initiative: Enables citizens to draft laws to place on the ballot for a popular vote
Referendum: Allows citizens to vote on laws passed or proposed by legislature
Recall: Allows citizens to remove elected officials
Direct party primaries
Direct election of Senators
Senators were elected directly by voters, instead of being chosen by state legislatures (the Seventeenth Amendment)
Theodore Roosevelt:
U.S. President from 1901 – 1909
Believed that the President should exercise vigorous leadership in the public interest
Revived the use of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act to break-up Rockefeller’s Standard Oil Company
But distinguished between “good trusts” from “bad trusts” rather than condemn all trusts
Proposed new laws to protect consumer health, to regulate some industries, and to conserve the nation’s natural resources
The Meat Inspection Act (1906) provided government inspection of meat
The Pure Food and Drug Act (1906) regulated food preparation and sales of medicines