Political Participation and Voting Rights Notes

Overview of Political Participation

• Political participation encompasses all activities in which people involve themselves in the political world.

• These activities are categorized into two broad classifications: Conventional and Unconventional.

Conventional Political Participation

• Definition: Politically motivated activities that are legal.

• Examples of conventional participation:

  • Voting: Legally permitted provided the individual is registered and votes only once per election.

  • Financial contributions: Donating money to candidates while abiding by campaign finance laws.

  • Following politics in the media.

  • Discussing politics with others.

  • Contacting government officials.

  • Attending political events.

  • Working for a political cause.

  • Joining a political group.

Unconventional Political Participation

• Definition: Politically motivated activities that are illegal.

• These acts can result in severe consequences including arrest, fines, imprisonment, or the death penalty.

• Examples of unconventional participation:

  • Peaceful Civil Disobedience: Historically illustrated by Rosa Parks' arrest for refusing to sit in the "Colored" section of a bus.

  • Violent Acts: Specifically cited is the Oklahoma City federal building bombing as a politically motivated violent act.

Statistical Survey of Student Political Involvement (Spring 2026)

• Discussed politics with others: $67\%$

• Follow politics in the media: $56\%$

• Voted: $33\%$

• Not involved politically in any way: $19\%$

• Attended a political event: $18\%$

• Some other political involvement: $9\%$

• Contacted government official: $8\%$

• Worked for a political cause: $5\%$

• Contributed money: $5\%$

• Contacted the media: $4\%$

• Joined a political group: $2\%$

Historical Restrictions on Voting Rights (circa 1800)

• Voting was originally restricted based on various demographic and socioeconomic factors:

  • Gender: Only males could vote. Men were believed to be better able to understand political complexities due to formal education. Females were excluded as the "fairer sex" who should not be "soiled" by the "rough-and-tumble" political world.

  • Race: Only whites could vote. Non-whites, including many African slaves, were accorded no political rights.

  • Age: Only those $21$ and older could vote. Life expectancy was roughly half of today's rate, meaning a larger percentage of the population was under this minimum age.

  • Wealth: Only property owners could vote. Elites viewed wealth as a measure of education and intelligence, trusting ONLY property owners with the vote. The poor were excluded.

Cumulative Impact of Early Restrictions: The 1824 Election

• The $1824$ election is the first for which reliable and full voting data is available.

• Total voters: $365,000$

• Total population: $10,597,000$

• Percentage of population that voted: $3\%$

Expansions of Voting Rights: Socioeconomic and Racial Barriers

• Inclusion of the Poor ($1830s$ - $1960s$):

  • Most property requirements were eliminated in the $1830s$ during the "Era of the Common Man" or "Era of Jacksonian Democracy."

  • Impact shown in the $1840$ Election:

  • Total voters: $2,412,000$

  • Total population: $17,068,000$

  • Percentage of population that voted: $14\%$

  • Wealth continued as a factor via "poll taxes" until the $1960s$.

  • The $24^{th}$ Amendment eliminated poll taxes, finally removing wealth as a legal barrier to voting.

• Inclusion of Racial Minorities ($1870s$ - $1960s$):

  • The $15^{th}$ Amendment was intended to eliminate race as a barrier.

  • However, Southern states devised discriminatory barriers: poll taxes, literacy tests, grandfather clauses, and white primaries.

  • Race was only truly removed as a barrier with the passage of the $1965$ Voting Rights Act.

Expansions of Voting Rights: Gender and Age

• Inclusion of Women ($1869$ - $1920$):

  • States began granting women's suffrage individually after the Civil War.

  • The $19^{th}$ Amendment (ratified in $1920$) gave women the right to vote nationwide.

  • Impact on voter participation:

  • $1916$ Election: $18,541,000$ voters out of $100,504,000$ population ($18\%$ voter turnout).

  • $1920$ Election: $26,788,000$ voters out of $106,021,000$ population ($25\%$ voter turnout).

• Inclusion of Young People ($1971$):

  • Prompted by the Vietnam War, many felt it was inappropriate to draft people to fight and die while denying them the vote.

  • The $26^{th}$ Amendment established a uniform national voting age of $18$.

Modern Voting Barriers and Restrictions

• Even with historical expansions, certain groups remain excluded from the right to vote:

  • Non-citizens: Citizenship is a universal requirement in every state.

  • Under $18$: Individuals must reach the minimum age threshold.

  • Unregistered: Most states require registration to prevent electoral fraud.

  • Some Felons: Most states prevent convicted felons from voting.

  • Some Mentally Ill: Most states prevent those deemed severely mentally ill or incompetent from voting.

  • Recent Movers: Most states require residency for at least $30$ days prior to the election.

2024 Election Participation Statistics

• Total population: $340,800,000$

• Voting-age population: $264,798,000$

• Potential eligible voters: $244,666,000$

• Registered voters: $219,300,000$

• Actual voters: $156,766,000$

Demographic Factors Influencing Voter Turnout

• Income:

  • More Likely to vote: Middle and Upper income levels.

  • Less Likely to vote: Lower income levels.

  • Reasons: Affluent individuals find it easier to physically get to the polls.

• Education:

  • More Likely to vote: College-educated individuals.

  • Less Likely to vote: Grade school and high school educated individuals.

  • Reasons: Higher income and education provide more sources of political information and a better understanding of how politics impacts life.

• Age:

  • More Likely to vote: Middle-aged and older individuals (early retired).

  • Less Likely to vote: Young people.

  • Reasons: Older people appreciate government impacts (Medicare, Social Security, property taxes, schools). Turnout declines after the late $70s$ due to illness/infirmity.

  • $2016$ Turnout by Age:

  • $18-29$ year olds: $43.4\%$

  • $30-44$ year olds: $56.9\%$

  • $45-59$ year olds: $66.2\%$

  • $60+$ year olds: $71.4\%$

• Race and Ethnicity:

  • More Likely to vote: Non-Hispanic Whites (driven by higher education and income levels).

  • Less Likely to vote: Blacks, Latinos, Asians, Native Americans.

  • Specific factors: Latinos and Asian/Pacific Islanders show lower rates due to language barriers and citizenship issues. African-American rates equaled White rates in $2008$ and $2012$ due to the appeal of Barack Obama.

• Political Efficacy:

  • Defined as an attitudinal trait regarding the ability to understand and impact government.

  • Internal dimension: "Can I understand what is going on in the political world?"

  • External dimension: "Can I have an impact on the political world?"

  • Higher efficacy correlates with higher participation.

• Party and Ideology:

  • More Likely: Partisans (Democrats/Republicans) and Ideologues (Liberals/Conservatives).

  • Less Likely: Independents and Moderates.

Impact of Election Type on Turnout

• High Stimulus Elections:

  • Example: Presidential elections.

  • Characteristics: More media coverage, more candidate spending, higher voter awareness and interest. Results in the highest turnout.

• Low Stimulus Elections:

  • Characteristics: Generally lower turnout.

  • Categories:

  • Midterm elections: (e.g., $2018$, $2022$) Important offices except for the presidency.

  • Primary elections: To select party nominees.

  • Off-year elections: (e.g., $2023$, $2025$) Electing local officials like mayors and city councilmen.

  • Special elections: Not regularly scheduled.

Major Influences on Voting Decisions: Partisanship

• Partisanship is usually the most important influence on an individual's vote.

• Republicans and Democrats overwhelmingly vote for their respective party candidates.

• Exit Poll Data (Democratic Identifier Voting Rate for Dem Candidate / Republican Identifier Voting Rate for GOP Candidate):

  • $2008$: Dem Identifier ($89\%$); GOP Identifier ($90\%$)

  • $2012$: Dem Identifier ($92\%$); GOP Identifier ($93\%$)

  • $2016$: Dem Identifier ($88\%$); GOP Identifier ($88\%$)

  • $2020$: Dem Identifier ($94\%$); GOP Identifier ($94\%$)

  • $2024$: Dem Identifier ($94\%$); GOP Identifier ($95\%$)

• Independent Voters:

  • Often decide the outcome. Romney won independents in $2012$ ($50\%$\text{ vs }45\%\text{ for Obama}$), but lost due to higher Democratic turnout.\n - Trump won a narrow plurality of independents in 2016$($46\%$\text{ vs }$42\%\text{ for Clinton}$).

  • Harris won independents in $2024$ ($49\%$\text{ vs }46\%\text{ for Trump}$), but lost due to higher Republican turnout.\n\n# Major Influences on Voting Decisions: Candidate Attributes\n\n- Attributes include character, experience, and personality.\n\n- Case Study: Dwight "Ike" Eisenhower (elected 1952$,$1956) was a beloved figure as Supreme Allied Commander, allowing him to win despite the Democrats being the dominant party.\n\n- Voter Priorities (Change vs. Experience):\n - Change oriented: Favors the non-incumbent party (Obama 2008$:$89\%$, Trump$2016$:$82\%$, Trump$2024$:$74\%).\n - Experience: Favors long governmental resumes (McCain 2008$:$93\%$, Clinton$2016$:$90\%$, Harris$2024$:$82\%\text{ for Good Judgment/Character attributes}).\n\n# Major Influences on Voting Decisions: Issues\n\n- Issue divisions often reinforce partisan lines (GOP as Conservative, Democrats as Liberal).\n\n- Republican Issue Strength:\n - Moral Values/Abortion: Bush (80\%$in$2004).\n - Economy/Jobs: Trump (83\%$in$2020$,$80\%$in$2024).\n - Terrorism: McCain (86\%$in$2008$), Trump ($57\%$in$2016).\n - Immigration: Trump (64\%$in$2016$,$90\%$in$2024).\n - Taxes: Romney (66\%$in$2012).\n\n- Democratic Issue Strength:\n - Health Care: Obama (73\%$to$75\%$), Biden ($62\%).\n - Racial Inequality: Biden (92\%$in$2020).\n - Democracy: Harris (80\%$in$2024).\n - Coronavirus: Biden (81\%$in$2020).\n - Education: Kerry (73\%$in$2004$$).