A.P. United States Government & Politics Review Flashcards
A.P. U.S. Government & Politics Optional Semester 1 Review Guide
Introduction
This study guide is optional but beneficial for final exam preparation, contributing to 25% of semester grade.
Special notes for students near grade thresholds: completion can result in a letter grade "bump" if within 1% of the next letter grade.
Explicit completion rules: answers must be thorough and in student's own words, submitted via Schoology by the start of the exam.
Unit 1: Constitutional Foundations
1. The Declaration of Independence
Reasons for Separation from Great Britain:
Great Britain disrespected colonists.
Violation of the social contract.
Governance from a distance.
Natural rights being denied to colonists.
2. Articles of Confederation
Problems:
Weakness in federal governance (unable to raise an army).
Inability to impose taxes.
Required a super majority to enact changes.
Change to the Constitution:
Strengthened central government.
Included strong enumerated powers.
3. U.S. Constitution
Key Compromises:
Introduced checks and balances among branches.
Established a three-branch system.
Added Bill of Rights as a compromise with Anti-Federalists.
Original Text Changes Over Time:
Adjustments made to accommodate amendments and interpretations.
4. Separation of Powers
Definition:
Division of powers among three branches: Legislative, Executive, Judicial.
Impact on Federal Government Power:
Prevents any one person from controlling the entire government.
5. Checks & Balances
Examples:
Legislation can be vetoed by the President.
Judicial review is available for laws deemed bad.
Shared vs. Separated Powers:
Shared powers involve collaboration between legislation and the executive.
Separated powers mean one branch acts independently of others; e.g., the Judicial branch functions independently.
6. Brutus I
Main Arguments against the Constitution:
A strong central government risks tyranny.
The Elastic Clause allows for rule-bending by the government.
The Supremacy Clause may overshadow state laws.
7. Federalist No. 10
Arguments Supporting the Constitution:
Addressed the dangers of factions through a large republic.
Provided a framework to manage competing interests.
8. Participatory Theory of Democracy
Definition and Examples:
Encourages direct citizen involvement in political decisions.
E.g., town hall meetings, referendums.
9. Pluralist Theory of Democracy
Definition and Examples:
Suggests that multiple groups vie for power through organized effort.
E.g., interest groups lobbying for policy changes.
10. Elite Theory of Democracy
Definition:
Decision-making is dominated by a small group of elites, often excludes majority participation.
E.g., wealthy individuals or corporations influencing policy.
11. Divided Government
Definition:
Situation in which one party controls the presidency and another controls one or both houses of Congress.
Impact on Law-Making:
Can lead to gridlock or require bipartisan cooperation.
12. Parliamentary Democracy
Features and Comparison with U.S. Presidential System:
Features: Fusion of executive and legislative branches; prime minister is not directly elected.
Comparison: U.S. separates powers with an elected president and independent legislature.
Unit 2: Federalism
13. Federalism / Federal System
Definition:
System of governance where power is divided between national and state governments.
Contrast with Separation of Powers:
Federalism pertains to power sharing across layers of government, while separation refers to powers within the same level.
14. Confederal System
Comparison with Federal System:
Confederal system grants more power to state governments compared to a stronger national government in federal systems.
15. Reserved Powers
Definition:
Powers not explicitly stated in the Constitution, reserved for states.
Comparison with Other Powers:
Enumerated Powers: Specifically listed powers for the federal government.
Concurrent Powers: Shared powers between state and federal governments.
Examples of Reserved Powers: Education policy, marriage laws.
16. McCulloch v. Maryland
Summary of Decision:
Established federal authority to create a national bank not subject to state taxation.
Impact on Federalism:
Reinforced the supremacy of federal over state power.
17. Necessary & Proper Clause (Elastic Clause)
Impact on Federalism:
Grants Congress power to create laws deemed necessary to execute enumerated powers, potentially overreaching state authority.
18. Supremacy Clause
Impact on Federalism:
Establishes that federal law takes precedence over state laws.
19. Interstate Commerce Clause
Interpretation and Impact on Federalism:
Allows Congress to regulate commerce among states; strengthens federal power.
U.S. v. Lopez:
The Supreme Court ruled that guns in schools did not constitute interstate commerce, limiting federal power under this clause.
20. Congress’ Taxing & Spending Powers
Use in Fiscal Federalism:
Congress provides grants to state and local governments to manage fiscal relations.
21. Grants-in-Aid & Conditions of Aid
Categorization:
Block Grants: Flexible funding for broad purposes.
Categorical Grants: Funds for specific projects with strict regulations.
22. Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954)
Facts and Court’s Ruling:
Ruled that racial segregation in schools violated the Equal Protection Clause.
Impact on Federalism:
Confirmed federal government's role in enforcing civil rights against state laws.
Unit 3: Political Ideology, Political Parties, & the Economy
23. Linkage Institutions
Definition and Examples:
Structures that connect citizens with government (e.g., political parties, elections, interest groups, media).
24. Political Socialization
Definition:
The process by which individuals acquire political beliefs, typically influenced by family, education, and social environment.
25. Party Discipline
Definition:
The tendency of party members to support party decisions and policies.
26. Political Ideologies
Beliefs and Associated Parties:
Liberal: Advocating social equality and expanded government role.
Conservative: Favoring limited government and traditional values.
Libertarian: Strong emphasis on individual rights and minimal government intervention.
Populist: Emphasis on representing the ordinary person against the elite.
27. Lifecycle Effects
Definition:
Political attitudes influenced by the specific stage of life a person is in (e.g., younger voters may prioritize different issues than older voters).
28. Generational Effects
Definition:
Events or trends that affect a specific generation's political outlook.
29. Political Parties
Roles and Comparison with Parliamentary System:
Nominate candidates, influence policy, mobilize voters.
Unlike parliamentary systems, U.S. parties are separate from the executive.
30. Party Platform / Planks
Definition:
Party platform outlines the party's stance on various issues; each specific stance is a plank.
Positions of Democrats & Republicans:
Democrats often support social reforms and inclusivity.
Republicans typically advocate for fiscal conservatism and limited government.
31. Voter Demographics
Partisan Leaning by Traits:
Tendencies of demographic groups to align with specific parties based on traits like race, income, and education.
32. Realignments / Critical Elections
Definitions:
Major shifts in voter allegiance, often precipitated by significant events.
Historical Example:
The election of 1932 during the Great Depression marked a shift from Republican to Democrat dominance.
33. Budget Deficit
Definition:
Occurs when expenditures exceed revenues.
Relation to National Debt:
Persistent deficits contribute to the national debt.
Funding Deficit Spending:
Typically financed through borrowing.
34. Budget Surplus
Definition:
Occurs when revenues exceed expenditures.
35. Federal Government Revenue
Top 3 Sources:
Income tax, payroll taxes, corporate taxes.
36. Income Tax
Progressive (Graduated) Income Tax System:
Tax rates increase with higher income levels, aiming for equitable taxation.
37. Federal Budget
Top 4 Areas of Spending:
Social Security, Medicare, defense, and interest on debt.
Total Yearly Amount and Trends:
Trends fluctuate based on economic conditions and government priorities.
Difficulty in Passing:
Debates and disagreements among parties complicate budget approval.
38. Discretionary Spending
Definition:
Portion of the budget that is debated and decided upon each fiscal year.
Largest Area:
Defense spending typically constitutes the largest portion of discretionary spending.
39. Mandatory Spending
Definition:
Spending required by existing law, often entitlements.
Top 3 Areas:
Social Security, Medicare, Medicaid.
40. Entitlement Programs / Social Welfare Programs
Definition:
Government programs providing financial benefits to eligible individuals.
Trends and Budget Problems:
Increased enrollment and costs challenge funding sustainability.
41. Ideology & Economic Policy
Conservative Solutions:
Favor reduced government spending and tax cuts.
Liberal Solutions:
Advocate for increased taxation on the wealthy and increased spending on social programs.
42. Keynesian Economics
Definition and Ideology Connection:
Economic theory advocating for government intervention to manage economic cycles.
43. Supply Side Economics
Definition and Ideology Connection:
Economic philosophy emphasizing tax cuts to stimulate investment and growth.
44. Public Opinion Polls
Scientific Basis of Polls:
Random sampling, unbiased questions, margin of error.
Impact on Elections:
Influence candidate strategies, voter perceptions, and media coverage.
Unit 4: Campaign & Elections
45. Primary Elections & Caucuses
Definitions:
Primary Elections: Direct vote by the electorate for party candidates.
Caucuses: Meetings of party members to discuss and select candidates.
Comparison with Other Democracies:
Differ in terms of candidate selection processes.
Contrast with General Elections:
Primaries determine party candidates; general elections determine officeholders.
Significance of Iowa & New Hampshire:
Set the tone for campaigns; garner substantial media attention.
46. Incumbency Advantage
Explanation:
Incumbents often have name recognition, established fundraising, and a track record of governance.
Contrast with Challengers:
Challengers face difficulties gaining visibility and support.
47. Direct Election
Current Offices:
U.S. Senate, House of Representatives.
Original Constitution Offices:
Initially, only the House of Representatives was directly elected; Senators were chosen by state legislatures.
48. Political Elites / Activists
Definition:
Individuals actively engaged in politics, possessing more influence.
Demographic Traits:
Often characterized by higher education levels and socioeconomic status.
Impact:
More effective in primaries, increasing voter turnout in their demographic.
49. Two-Party System
Advantages over Minor Parties:
Major parties have greater resources and visibility; third parties often face “wasted vote syndrome” – fear that voting for them won’t result in victory.
50. Electoral College
Vote Allocation:
Each state’s electoral votes are based on congressional representation.
Impacts on Presidential Elections:
Can lead to candidates winning the presidency while losing the popular vote.
If No candidate Receives 270 Votes:
The House of Representatives selects the President.
51. Proportional Representation
Definition:
Electoral system where seats are allocated based on the proportion of votes received.
Usage:
Common in many parliamentary systems but rare in the U.S.
52. Winner-Take-All System / Single-Member Districts
Definition:
Winner-Take-All: The candidate with the most votes wins the entire district.
Single-Member Districts: Each electoral district elects one representative.
Impact on Elections:
Can disadvantage minority candidates and third parties.
53. Plurality System
Definition:
Candidates need only to receive the most votes to win, without reaching a majority.
Impact on Elections:
Primarily benefits the two major parties; can contribute to wasted votes.
54. Reapportionment & Redistricting
Definitions:
Reapportionment: Redistribution of congressional seats based on census results.
Redistricting: Redrawing district lines by state governments every ten years following the census.
Relation to Census:
Voter distribution defined by population count.
55. Baker v. Carr (1962)
Facts and Court’s Ruling:
Case established that legislative districts must be of equal population (one man, one vote).
Addressedmalapportionment due to Tennessee's failure to redistrict.
56. Gerrymandering
Definition:
Drawing district boundaries in a way that gives one political party an advantage.
Marginal vs. Safe Districts:
Marginal Districts: Highly competitive, often changing party control.
Safe Districts: Regularly returns the same party to office.
57. Shaw v. Reno (1993)
Facts and Court’s Ruling:
Court ruled that districts cannot be drawn solely based on race, reinforcing anti-gerrymandering principles.
58. Voter Turnout
Measurement:
Percentage of eligible voters who cast a ballot in an election.
Comparison:
U.S. voter turnout is often lower than in other democracies.
Demographic Groups:
Rates vary significantly by race, income, and education level.
Possible Solutions:
Implement mail-in voting, same-day registration, and improve access to polling places.
59. Disenfranchisement / Voter Suppression
Definitions:
Disenfranchisement: Denial of the right to vote (e.g., felons).
Voter Suppression: Policies aimed at discouraging specific groups from voting (e.g., strict ID laws).
Examples of Disenfranchised Groups:
Felons, racial minorities impacted by suppression tactics.
60. Position Issues & Valence Issues
Comparison:
Position Issues: Public divided on opinions (e.g., abortion).
Valence Issues: Widely agreed-upon issues with varying solutions proposed by candidates (e.g., economic policies).
61. Horse Race Journalism
Definition:
Coverage that focuses on poll positions and candidate standings rather than substantial policy issues.
Impact on Elections:
May lead to a focus on personality rather than platforms, fostering a "popularity contest" atmosphere.
Unit 5: Interest Groups & Campaign Finance
62. Interest Groups
Definition:
Organizations that attempt to influence public policy and governance.
Comparison with Related Entities:
Political Parties: Broad platforms and seek to control government.
Social Movements: Typically grassroots movements to promote societal change.
PACs: Focused financially on supporting candidates directly.
63. The “Free Rider” Problem
Description:
Individuals benefit from resources or services without contributing to their funding.
Overcoming Problem:
Interest groups use incentives (e.g., exclusive information) to engage members actively.
64. Solidary Incentives
Definition:
Benefits derived from belonging to a group, shared enjoyment or social interaction among members.
65. Economic Incentives
Definition:
Financial gains or rewards for members or supporters of interest groups.
66. Purpose Incentives
Definition:
Motivations stemming from the organization’s goal or mission, such as promoting a social cause.
67. Pork Barrel Legislation
Definition:
Government spending for localized projects secured primarily to bring money to a representative’s district.
Legislative Appeal:
Attracts support from constituents by demonstrating government benefit.
68. Logrolling & Earmarks
Definitions:
Logrolling: Mutual quid pro quo, where legislators agree to support each other’s projects.
Earmarks: Funding directed towards specific projects within a bill, often linked to pork-barrel spending.
69. Interest Group Lobbying Strategies
Overview of Each Strategy:
Information: Providing research and data to influence policymakers.
Interest Group Ratings / Endorsements: Public assessments of political candidates based on alignment with group interests.
The Revolving Door: Movement of individuals between roles in government and the private sector, influencing policy decisions.
Grassroots Mobilization: Encouragement of the general public to contact representatives regarding legislation. Issue Public: Specific group of individuals united by a common interest.
Bringing Litigation / Organizing Cases: Utilizing legal challenges to achieve policy goals.
Amicus Curiae Briefs: Documents submitted by non-litigants to influence court decisions.
Spending / Donating Money: Financial contributions to campaigns to secure access and influence; includes PACs and Super PACs.
70. “Direct” Strategies vs. “Indirect” Strategies
Definitions:
Direct Strategies: Lobbying directly through communication with policymakers (e.g., meeting with legislators).
Indirect Strategies: Mobilizing public opinion or grassroots campaigns to put pressure on policymakers.
Usage Context:
Direct used when access is available; indirect is necessary when direct access is limited.
71. Political Action Committees (PACs)
Definition:
Organizations that raise and spend money to elect or defeat candidates.
Campaign Finance Rules:
PACs face contribution limits; Super PACs can raise unlimited funds but cannot coordinate directly with candidates.
72. Independent Expenditures
Definition:
Expenditures made by individuals or organizations independently of a candidate’s campaign.
Impact on Elections:
Can greatly influence election outcomes through significant spending.
73. Campaign Finance Reform
Existing Rules:
Regulations govern contribution limits and disclosures related to campaign financing.
Citizens United v. FEC (2010):
Supreme Court ruling allowing unlimited independent expenditures by corporations and unions in politics, significantly changing campaign finance landscape.