Deterrence theory: People would be deterred from committing crimes if their rational calculation indicates that the fear of punishment costs outweighs the benefits Stafford & Warr’s reconceptualization of deterrence** Cornish and Clark’s crime as a rational choice: calculating risks and rewards*
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o Modern biology theory- biological factors influence the likelihood of committing crime More advanced but less biologically determinate Focus on a broader range of biological factors (e.g. genes, head injury, exposure to toxins, birth complications, etc.) Biological factors interact with the environment (biosocial…) to influence how individuals react
o Lombroso’s biological theory- criminals were not normal and were biologically different (forces beyond the individual’s control) Genetic throwbacks “Born criminals” —Make up 1/3 of all criminals (flattened nose, Large jaws, etc) Insane criminals- not born criminals (idiots, epileptics, or alcoholics)
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o Sampson & Wilson (Urban inequality)- structural social disorganization + cultural social isolation…crime Deliberate political choices and Societal changes (outmigration, unemployment)...Macro-structural factors (racial segregation, structural economic transformation, class linked out-migration from the inner city, housing discrimination)....Poverty, Residential Mobility, Ethnic Heterogeneity AND social isolation, cultural isolation Social isolation- lack of contact with members or institutions of the mainstream society (not traveling out) Cultural isolation- Cultivate unique sets of values and beliefs that promote aggressive conduct and a disregard for the law (violence and crime as unavoidable)
o Shaw & McKay (Social Disorganization Model) o Sampson et al- Collective efficacy |
o Differential association [micro-level] Criminal behavior is learned- taught techniques and motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes Motives driven by definitions favorable to the violation of the law DAs may vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity
o Aker’s Social learning theory o Cohen’s subculture theory Delinquent behaviors are methods of gaining status among the delinquent peers due to goal blockage and status frustration (defeat in the competition…) Value clash between middle-class values and Subcultures (truancy…)
o Self-control theory: source of resistance against criminal temptations Elements: Lack of diligence, adventurous, insensitive to suffering Explains stability across the life course Propensity cannot be acted on unless the opportunity to do so exists Caused by ineffective parenting Attachment of the parent to the child Parental supervision Recognition of deviant acts Punishment of deviant acts
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o Merton's strain theory (Goals and norms [how people are to achieve goals]) Conformity: ++ Innovation: +- Ritualism: -+, Non-Criminal response, Low expectations from goals, but pleasure from traditional ceremonies Retreatism: - - Rebellionism: +/- +/-, seek radical change, new goals and means
o Agnew’s General Strain Theory Strain…negative emotions (anger)…coping/crime Strains- 1) Failure to achieve valued goals, 2) Removal of positive stimuli, 3) Presence of negative stimuli Objective, subjective, experienced, vicarious, anticipated strains Criminal coping is likely when… POLICY- alter perceptions and goals, equip traits/skills, eliminate/alter strains
o Institutional anomie theory (crime due to the American dream) Achievement orientation- worth is based on accomplishments Individualism Universalism~ susceptibility to evaluation Monetary rewards Social institutions are the building blocks of societies and regulate human needs POLICY- change money fetish and strengthen non-economic insitiutions
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o Social bond theory (Weak social bonds increase the propensity to offend) [micro] o Self-control theory o Neutralization theory (rationalizations used to justify criminal activity and neutralize convictions) Denial of responsibility- Breaks the link between the individual and his acts Denial of injury- Breaks the link between acts and their consequences Denial of victim- Diminished awareness of a victim, rightful retaliation/necessary punishment Condemnation of condemners Appeal to higher authorities- Sacrificing larger society for social groups (e.g. gangs, family, etc.)~ loyalty
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o Clarke, situational crime prevention (the nature of criminal opportunities influence the amount, nature, and location of crime) Focus on the present situation (choices and decisions) and make places less vulnerable through environmental design 1) reduce physical opportunities, 2) increase chance of the offender being caught POLICY:
o Routine activity theory (crime rates might be attributed to shifts in lifestyle, routine activities [performed to fulfill their needs, like school, work, shopping]) Decreased number of adults at home during the day…increased targets bc of lack of guardianship at home Increases in lightweight/easily transportable products Excess in motivated offenders (increase in youth population) Elements- motivated offender, suitable target, absence of a capable guardian Charavteristics of attractive targets: value, inertia, visibility, access POLICY- police, security guards, CCTV, fences
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Communities are like houses…if left unrepaired, all the rest of the windows will break (signal that no one cares) 1. Spiral decline begins when disorderly people are allowed to take over public spaces 2. Decent people become fearful and change their behavior 3. Escalating disorder sends the message “no one cares” …breakdown of community controls (informal social control breaks)
POLICY: police initiate zero-tolerance or quality-of-life policing
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o Moffitt adolescent limited & life persistent offenders Adolescent-limited (temporary and situational) Why…Maturity gap between development and expectations of society (normative behaviors…) Contemporary consequences Experimentation, discipline, few opportunities, no maturity gap… stop at adulthood
Life-course persistent offenders (permanent and stable, continuous lifelong antisocial behavior) Neuropsychological functions- fetal brain development/brain injury, maternal drug use, poor nutrition, birth complications, abuse/neglect, lack of stimulation and affection Neuropsychological deficits- temperament, behavior development, and cognitive abilities Drug addiction, homelessness, unstable relationships, domestic violence, and mental illness
o Laub and Sampson’s age-graded social bond theory caught in pathways or life trajectories that form a continuous line over time (turning points like marriage, work, school) Factors- individual differences (temperament, conduct), disadvantaged environments, ineffective/rejecting parenting (weakened social bonds) Solution- quality, conventional social bonds…social control (parents, school, job, marriage) 1) Turning point (often fortuitous), 2) increased informal social control, 3) routine activities/deviancy cut off, new life (pro-social investment)
o Giordano el al’s cognitive transformation theory Desistence (both opportunities for change and active efforts to interpret the world and themselves differently) Marital attachment and job stability are not strongly related to desistance < actor's active involvement (hooks for change: catalysts for lasting change)
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o Marx inequality in the distribution of scarce resources…conflict of interests they will start to question the legitimacy, distribution of resources…communism
o Bonger’s criminality and economic Conditions o Corrie’s market society and crime (unequal social structure [capitalism>compassionate capitalism] gives rise to criminal behavior) Market society: the pursuit of personal economic gain becomes increasingly the dominant organizing principle of social life, Institutional imbalance, inequality, competition, weak alternative political values, eroded informal social support/care POLICY- Early intervention programs for at-risk children, Universal child care and health care, Living wage law
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o liberation perspective (Adler) (sex role socialization and equality of opportunities) o Radical perspective (Chesney-Lind) (structural inequality in Power, patriarchy) Males exert dominance through their power and a hegemonic culture~ violent crimes Social control agencies reinforce stereotypical gender expectations, recidivism? Contextual factors in girls’ and boys’ lives, including racism, poverty, and abuse
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o Labeling theories (label, respond to, and attempt to regulate individuals) o Reintegrative shaming (not all labeling/shaming bad) Stigmatizing shaming (criminal label becomes master status, no reconciliation) = more crime Reintegrative shaming (love the sinner, hate the sin) = less crime Restorative justice: repairing harm (restitution) and community involvement
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