Social Structure

1. Hunter-Gatherers — Societies in which people survive by hunting animals and gathering wild plants for food. They usually move from place to place to find resources.

2. Pastoral — Societies that depend on raising and herding domesticated animals for food, clothing, and other resources. They often move to find grazing land for their animals.

3. Horticultural — Societies that grow crops in small gardens using simple tools. They rely on farming but do not usually use large machines.

4. Agrarian (Agricultural) — Societies that depend on farming large amounts of land to produce food. Agriculture allows people to produce extra food, support larger populations, and develop permanent settlements.

5. Industrial — Societies that use machines, factories, and mass production to make goods. Manufacturing becomes an important part of the economy, and many people work in factories.

6. Postindustrial — Societies whose economies focus mainly on services, information, and technology rather than manufacturing. Examples of jobs include teachers, doctors, and computer programmers.

Status and Roles

7. Ascribed Status — A social position a person is born with or receives without choosing it. It is not earned through personal effort.
Example: Age or being someone’s child.

8. Achieved Status — A social position a person earns or chooses through their actions, decisions, or accomplishments.
Example: Becoming a doctor, a team captain, or a class president.

9. Master Status — A status that is especially important in shaping how a person sees themselves or how others see them. It can influence how people treat that person.
Example: Someone being known primarily as a famous athlete.

10. Status Symbol — An object, possession, or sign that represents a person’s social status, wealth, or prestige.
Example: Expensive jewelry, designer clothing, or a luxury car.

11. Role — The behaviors, duties, and responsibilities associated with a particular social status. Each status comes with certain expectations.
Example: A student’s role includes learning, participating in class, and completing assignments.

12. Role Exit — The process of leaving a role that was an important part of a person’s identity and adjusting to a new identity.
Example: A professional athlete retiring and adjusting to life outside professional sports.

13. Role Expectations — The behaviors and responsibilities that society or other people expect someone to fulfill because of their social position.
Example: Parents are expected to care for and support their children.

14. Role Performance — How a person actually behaves while carrying out a particular role. Their performance may or may not meet other people’s expectations.
Example: A teacher explaining lessons and helping students understand the material.

15. Role Conflict — A situation in which the expectations of two or more social roles clash, making it difficult to fulfill both.
Example: A student who has to choose between studying for an exam and attending work.

16. Role Strain — A situation in which a person struggles to meet multiple expectations associated with the same role.
Example: A student struggling to balance studying, completing homework, and participating in school activities.

Important difference:

• Role conflict: Expectations from different roles clash.

• Role strain: Expectations within the same role are difficult to manage.

Groups and Social Interaction

17. Aggregate — A collection of people who happen to be in the same place at the same time but do not necessarily interact or have a relationship.
Example: People waiting at a bus stop.

18. Category — A collection of people who share a common characteristic but may not know one another or interact.
Example: All high school students in a city.

19. Social Group — Two or more people who interact with one another and share a sense of connection or belonging. They may have common interests, goals, or relationships.
Example: A group of friends who regularly spend time together.

20. Reference Group — A group that a person uses as a standard to evaluate themselves, their behavior, or their achievements. People may compare themselves with the group or use it as a guide for how to act.
Example: A student comparing their study habits to those of successful students.

21. Primary Group — A small group characterized by close, personal, and lasting relationships. Members often provide emotional support and care about one another.
Example: Close friends or family members.

22. Secondary Group — A group formed mainly to accomplish a specific goal or task. Relationships are often less personal and may not last beyond the group’s purpose.
Example: Students working together on a school project.

23. Ingroup — A group that a person identifies with and feels they belong to. Members may feel loyalty toward their group and see it as part of their identity.
Example: Someone feeling connected to their school’s sports team.

24. Outgroup — A group that a person does not identify with or views as separate from their own group. This distinction can sometimes lead to competition or prejudice.
Example: A sports team viewed as a rival by another team.

Organizations and Social Institutions

25. Formal Organization — A group deliberately created to achieve specific goals, usually with established rules, responsibilities, and positions.
Example: A school, business, or charity.

26. Bureaucracy — A way of organizing a large organization through a clear hierarchy, specialized jobs, formal rules, and impersonal procedures. It is designed to make work organized and predictable.
Example: A government agency with different departments and levels of authority.

27. Iron Law of Oligarchy — The idea that large organizations tend to become controlled by a small group of leaders, even when the organization was originally designed to allow members to participate in decisions. Leaders often gain more power because they control information and decision-making.
Example: Members of an organization have little influence because a few leaders make most of the decisions.

28. Social Institution — An established system of social relationships, rules, and practices that helps society meet important needs. Social institutions influence people’s behavior and help organize society.
Examples: Family, education, religion, government, and the economy.

29. Functions of Social Institutions — The different ways institutions contribute to society by meeting people’s needs, teaching social norms and values, maintaining order, and organizing social life.

• Family: Raises children and provides care, support, and socialization.

• Education: Teaches knowledge, skills, and society’s values.

• Religion: Provides beliefs, moral guidance, and community.

• Government: Creates laws, maintains order, and provides public services.

• Economy: Produces, distributes, and exchanges goods and services.

Leadership Styles

30. Authoritarian Leadership — A leadership style in which one leader makes most or all of the decisions and expects group members to follow directions. Members usually have little input. This can be useful when quick decisions are needed, but it may limit participation.
Example: A coach decides the team’s entire practice plan without asking for suggestions.

31. Democratic Leadership — A leadership style in which the leader encourages group members to share ideas and participate in decision-making. The leader may make the final decision, but members have an opportunity to contribute.
Example: A teacher asks students to suggest and vote on ideas for a class project.

32. Laissez-Faire Leadership — A leadership style in which the leader gives group members considerable freedom to make decisions and manage their own work. It can work well when members are responsible and independent, but too little guidance may cause confusion.
Example: A teacher allows students to organize their own group project with minimal supervision.

Group Behavior and Psychology

33. Groupthink — When members of a group focus so much on agreeing with one another that they avoid questioning ideas or expressing different opinions. They may ignore risks or make poor decisions because they want to maintain harmony or avoid rejection.

Example: Everyone in a group agrees with a bad plan because nobody wants to be the only person who disagrees.

34. Milgram’s Obedience Study — An experiment conducted by psychologist Stanley Milgram to investigate how willing people are to obey authority figures, even when the instructions conflict with their personal conscience.

Participants believed they were administering electric shocks to another person whenever that person answered incorrectly. However, the shocks were not real, and the learner was part of the experiment. The study found that many participants continued when instructed by the researcher, even when they were uncomfortable.

Main takeaway: The study demonstrated how strongly authority figures can influence people’s behavior and decisions.

Nonverbal Communication

35. Nonverbals (Nonverbal Communication) — Communication that occurs without spoken or written words. People use body movements, gestures, posture, eye contact, facial expressions, and tone of voice to communicate feelings or messages.

Example: Someone crossing their arms and avoiding eye contact may appear uncomfortable, although the meaning depends on the situation.

36. Facial Expressions — Movements of the face that communicate emotions, reactions, or attitudes. People often use facial expressions to show feelings without saying anything.

Examples:

• Smiling may communicate happiness.

• Frowning may communicate sadness or displeasure.

• Raised eyebrows may communicate surprise.

• A furrowed brow may communicate confusion or concentration.

Important: Facial expressions can help people interpret emotions, but they do not always reveal exactly what someone is thinking or feeling.

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Key Differences to Remember for the Test