Detailed Notes - The Carbon Cycle and Energy Security - Edexcel Geography A-level

The Geological Carbon Cycle

• The natural carbon cycle is the movement and storage of carbon between the land, ocean, and atmosphere.
• Three forms of carbon in the Carbon Cycle:
  • Inorganic: Found in rocks as bicarbonates and carbonates.
  • Organic: Found in plant material and living organisms.
  • Gaseous: Found as CO2 and CH4 (methane).
• There is generally a balance between production and absorption (or sources and sinks) of carbon in the natural carbon cycle.
• Sometimes, it takes a long time for equilibrium to be reached e.g. after a volcanic eruption.
• Stores are terrestrial, oceanic, or atmospheric.
• Fluxes refer to the movement/transfer of carbon between stores.

Stores of Carbon Cycle

• A carbon sink is any store which takes in more carbon than it emits, so an intact tropical rainforest is an example.
• A carbon source is any store that emits more carbon than it stores so a damaged tropical rainforest is an example.
• Carbon is present in stores of:
  • The atmosphere as CO_2 and methane.
  • The hydrosphere as dissolved CO_2.
  • The lithosphere as carbonates in limestone and fossil fuels like coal, gas, and oil.
  • The biosphere in living and dead organisms.

Carbon Sequestration

• Carbon Sequestration is the transfer of carbon from the atmosphere to other stores and can be both natural and artificial.
• For example, a plant sequesters carbon when it photosynthesizes and stores the carbon in its mass.

Main Carbon Stores (In order of magnitude):

• Marine Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks - Lithosphere - Long-term
  • Largest store: 66,000 - 100,000 million billion metric tons of carbon.
  • The rock cycle and continental drift recycle the rock over time, but this may take thousands, if not millions of years.
• Oceans - Hydrosphere - Dynamic
  • Second biggest store: 38,000 billion metric tons of carbon.
  • The carbon is constantly being utilized by marine organisms, lost as an output to the lithosphere, or gained as an input from rivers and erosion.
• Fossil Fuel Deposits - Lithosphere - Long-term but currently dynamic
  • Used to be rarely changing over short periods, but humans exploit them rapidly.
  • 4000 billion metric tons of carbon remain as fossil fuels.
• Soil Organic Matter - Lithosphere - Mid-term
  • Soil can store carbon for over a hundred years, but deforestation, agriculture, and land use change are affecting this store.
  • 1500 billion metric tons of carbon stored.
• Atmosphere - Dynamic
  • Human activity has caused CO_2 levels in the atmosphere to increase by around 40% since the industrial revolution, causing unprecedented change to the global climate.
  • 750 billion metric tons of carbon stored.
• Terrestrial Plants - Biosphere - Mid-term but very dynamic
  • Vulnerable to climate change and deforestation, resulting in declining carbon storage in forests annually in some areas of the world.
  • 560 billion metric tons of carbon.
• The lithosphere is the main store of carbon, with global stores unevenly distributed.
• For example, the oceans are larger in the southern hemisphere, and storage in the biosphere mostly occurs on land.
• Terrestrial plant storage is focused in the tropics and the northern hemisphere.

Fluxes of Carbon Cycle

• The transfers in the carbon cycle act to drive and cause changes in the carbon cycle over time.
• They all have impacts of varying magnitude over different lengths of time.
• Biological and chemical processes determine how much carbon is stored and released.
• The role of living organisms is very important in maintaining the system running efficiently.
• Photosynthesis
  • Living organisms convert Carbon Dioxide from the atmosphere and Water from the soil, into Oxygen and Glucose using Light Energy.
  • By removing CO_2 from the atmosphere, plants are sequestering carbon and reducing the potential impacts of climate change.
  • The process of photosynthesis occurs when chlorophyll in the leaves of the plant reacts with CO_2, to create the carbohydrate glucose.
  • Photosynthesis helps to maintain the balance between oxygen and CO_2 in the atmosphere.
  • Formula: Carbon Dioxide + Water → Light Energy → Oxygen + Glucose
• Respiration
  • Respiration occurs when plants and animals convert oxygen and glucose into energy which then produces the waste products of water and CO_2.
  • It is therefore chemically the opposite of photosynthesis: Oxygen + Glucose → Carbon Dioxide + Water
  • During the day, plants photosynthesize, absorbing significantly more CO_2 than they emit from respiration.
  • During the night they do not photosynthesize but they do respire, releasing more CO_2 than they absorb.
  • Overall, plants absorb more CO_2 than they emit, so are net carbon dioxide absorbers (from the atmosphere) and net oxygen producers (to the atmosphere).

Other Fluxes:

• Combustion
  • When fossil fuels and organic matter such as trees are burnt, they emit CO_2 into the atmosphere that was previously locked inside of them.
  • This may occur when fossil fuels are burnt to produce energy, or if wildfires occur.
• Decomposition
  • When living organisms die, they are broken down by decomposers (such as bacteria and detritivores) which respire, returning CO_2 into the atmosphere.
  • Some organic matter is also returned to the soil where it is stored adding carbon matter to the soil.
• Diffusion
  • The oceans can absorb CO_2 from the atmosphere, which has increased ocean acidity by 30% since pre-industrial times.
  • The ocean is the biggest carbon store, but with carbon levels increasing seawater becomes more acidic which is harming aquatic life by causing coral bleaching.
  • Many of the world’s coral reefs are now under threat.
• Sedimentation
  • This can happen on land or in the sea.
  • For example, when shelled marine organisms die, their shell fragments fall to the ocean floor and become compacted over time to form limestone.
  • Organic matter from vegetation and decaying marine organisms is compacted over time, whether on land or in the sea, to form fossil fuel deposits.
• Weathering and Erosion
  • Inorganic carbon is released slowly through weathering: rocks are eroded on land or broken down by carbonation weathering.
  • Carbonation weathering occurs when CO_2 in the air mixes with rainwater to create carbonic acid which aids erosion of rocks such as limestone.
  • The carbon is moved through the water cycle and enters the oceans.
  • Marine organisms use the carbon in the water to build their shells.
  • Increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere may increase weathering and erosion as a result, potentially affecting other parts of the carbon cycle.
• Metamorphosis
  • Extreme heat and pressure forms metamorphic rock, during which some carbon is released and some becomes trapped.
• Volcanic outgassing
  • There are pockets of CO_2 found in the Earth’s crust.
  • During a volcanic eruption or from a fissure in the Earth's crust, this CO_2 can be released.

Variations In Carbon Fluxes

• The quickest cycle is completed in seconds as plants absorb carbon for photosynthesis and then they release carbon when they respire.
• This cycle can slow down when levels of light or CO_2 drop.
• Dead organic material in soil may hold carbon for hundreds of years.
• Some organic materials may become buried so deeply that they don’t decay, or are buried in conditions unfavorable to decayers (potent low-lying gas, too much water).
• This material will become sedimentary rocks or hydrocarbons by geological processes.

Complex Carbon Processes

• Oceans are the largest carbon sink: they store 50 times more carbon than the atmosphere.
• Large amounts of carbon are stored in oceanic algae, plants, and coral.
• Lots of processes occur simultaneously within the ocean to store these large amounts of CO2. This transfer of CO2 into the sea is called ocean sequestration.
• Small changes in oceanic carbon levels can have significant global impacts.
• The CO_2 gas exchange between the atmosphere and ocean operates on different timescales.
• The majority of the processes which take the CO_2 out of the atmosphere and into the ocean occur in the top surface layer which makes up only a small proportion of the water in the world’s ocean.
• The carbon rich water in the surface layer is then transferred down into the lower layers of the ocean and transported around the world due to thermohaline circulation.
• It is this circulation which allows such large amounts of carbon to be stored in the sea.

The Biological Carbon Pump

• Phytoplankton are microscopic organisms that, like plants, photosynthesize.
• They take in carbon and turn it into organic matter.
• Despite accounting for around 1% of the world's photosynthetic biomass, phytoplankton contribute almost half of the total primary production.
• As they are the base of the marine food web, when they get eaten carbon is passed through the food chain.
• Remember that CO_2 is also released back into the water as these organisms respire.
• Some organisms like Plankton sequester CO_2, turning the carbon into their hard outer shells and inner skeletons.
• When these organisms die, some of their shells dissolve into the ocean water meaning the carbon becomes part of deep ocean currents.
• Any dead organisms which sink to the seafloor become buried and compressed, eventually forming limestone sediments (sedimentation).
• Over a long time period these can turn into fossil fuels.
• At the same time, some CO_2 from the atmosphere will naturally dissolve into the water.
• This process occurs on the surface of the oceans where CO_2 reacts with water to form carbonic acid.
• As the concentrations of CO2 in the atmosphere increase, oceans absorb more CO2 causing them to become more acidic.
• This acidification of the oceans could have long lasting negative effects.
• This movement of CO_2 isn’t one way, some will go from the water back into the atmosphere.

The Physical Pump

• There would come a point where the surface layer of the ocean would become so saturated with carbon that this process would slow down or stop occurring.
• (If you add salt to a cup of water there is a finite amount of salt which can be dissolved into the water).
• However, oceanic circulation provides a constant source of new water on the surface while transferring surface water into the deep ocean.
• It is this process which enables the ocean to store so much carbon.
• Water is not stored evenly within the water; the colder the water, the more CO2 is absorbed so the concentration of CO2 in the ocean is different around the world.
  • CO_2 concentration is 10% higher in the deep ocean compared to the surface of the ocean.
  • Polar regions hold more carbon than tropical regions.
  • Warm tropical waters release CO2 to the atmosphere but cold high latitude oceans absorb CO2 from the atmosphere.

Thermohaline Circulation

• Thermohaline circulation is an ocean current that produces both vertical and horizontal circulation of cold and warm water around the world’s oceans.
• In addition to this, the atmospheric circulation creates large currents in the oceans which transfers water from the warmer tropical areas of the world to the colder polar regions.
• The rate of circulation is slow; it takes around 1000 years for any cubic meter of water to travel around the entire system.
• Warm surface waters are depleted of CO_2 and nutrients therefore the foundation of the planet’s food chain depends on cool and nutrient rich water which support algae to grow.
• Water in the North Atlantic is cold and very saline which means it is denser and heavier causing it to sink.
• When the cold water sinks, warm water is drawn from the ocean surface.
• Eventually cold water is drawn from the bottom of the ocean and then warmed up.
• The process in more detail:
  1. The main current begins in polar oceans where the water is very cold, surrounding seawater sinks due to a higher density.
  2. The current is recharged as it passes Antarctica by extra cold, salty, dense water.
  3. Division of the main current; northward into the Indian Ocean and into the Western Pacific.
  4. The two branches warm and rise as they travel northward then loop back southward and westward.
  5. The now warmed surface waters continue circulating around the globe.
• On their eventual return to the North Atlantic they cool and the cycle begins again.
• The rate of absorption of CO_2 into the ocean depends on ocean temperatures.
• The colder the water, the more CO_2 is absorbed.
• Therefore, as ocean temperatures increase, the oceans will absorb less CO_2 (possibly even emitting some of its stored carbon dioxide).
• This would accelerate Climate Change and lead to further ocean warming (positive feedback mechanism).
• The role of the oceans in regulating climate and greenhouse gas emissions is essential to the Earth!

Terrestrial Sequestration

• Primary producers sequester carbon through the process of photosynthesis.
• All living things either release or intake carbon.
  • Primary producers (plants) take carbon from the atmosphere to photosynthesize and release carbon when they respire.
  • Vegetation growth depends on water, nutrients, and sunlight.
  • When consumers eat plants, carbon from the plants is converted into fats and proteins.
  • Micro-organisms feed on waste material from animals and plants.
  • Animal and plant remains are easier to decompose compared to wood.
  • Decomposition is faster in tropical climates with high rainfall, temperatures, and oxygen levels.
  • 95% of a tree’s biomass consists of CO_2 which is sequestered and converted to cellulose.
• The amount of carbon stored in trees depends on the balance of respiration and photosynthesis.

Carbon fluxes due to terrestrial organisms vary:

• Diurnally
  • During the day, fluxes are positive from the atmosphere to the ecosystem whereas in the night, fluxes are negative from the atmosphere to the ecosystem.
• Seasonally
  • In the northern hemisphere during winter, plants die and decay leading to high atmospheric CO2 concentrations but during spring when plants begin to grow, CO2 levels in the atmosphere begin to drop.
• Different amounts of carbon are stored worldwide and one of the stores that is currently changing is trees:
• The map shows how forests are declining in the tropical areas in the southern hemisphere and growing in the northern hemisphere.
• This is supported by data which shows that tropical areas such as Brazil and Indonesia have seen a decrease in carbon stocks of around 5 Gigatons of Carbon (GtC) in the last 25 years, but Russia, USA and China have seen increases of around 0.3, 2.9 and 2.3 GtC respectively.
• Detailed information on forests and climate change shows that:
  • Non-tropical forests have seen an increase in carbon sequestration in recent years, especially in Europe and Eastern Asia, due to conversion of agricultural land and plantations to new forests.
  • Forests in industrialized regions are expected to increase by 2050 but in the global south, forested areas will decrease.
  • Rate of forest loss has decreased from 9.5 million hectares per year in the 1990's to 5.5 million hectares per year in 2010-15.
  • The eight countries with the largest forested areas are: Russia, Brazil, China, Canada, USA, DRC, Australia and Indonesia.
  • Brazil has the most carbon stored on land and the most extensive deforested area.
  • China has the largest amount of afforested area.
  • Net Primary Productivity (NPP) refers to the amount of carbon absorbed by forests. For tropical forests it is positive all year round, but deciduous forests have a negative NPP in winter, but across the whole year their NPP is positive.

Soil's Capacity to Store Carbon

• Soils store between 20-30% of the world’s carbon.
• The amount of CO_2 sequestered or emitted depends on local conditions. In arid and semi-arid soils are the most important stores.
• Any loss by a plant to the ground means that some carbon will transfer to the soil.
• Soil microbes break down plants and release carbon to the atmosphere.
• After organisms die, thousands of compounds in soil are decomposed.
• The most long-term process is the formation of Humus, it has a dark and rich color and 60% of it contains carbon.
• Factors affecting soil capacity to store organic carbon include:
  • Climate – this affects the rate of plant growth and microbial activity. Decomposition occurs at a fast rate in places with higher temperatures and rainfall.
  • Soil type – Clay rich soils contain more carbon than sandy soils.
  • Use of soils – Land use, cultivation and disturbance can affect how much carbon can be held. If plant residue is added to the soil at a faster rate than soil organisms can convert it to CO_2, carbon will eventually be removed from the atmosphere and sequestered in the soil.

The Natural Greenhouse Effect

• Earth has a temperature control system which relies on greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
• The Earth’s climate is driven by incoming shortwave solar radiation:
  • Around 31% of carbon is reflected by clouds and gases in the atmosphere.
  • The remaining 69% is absorbed by the Earth’s surface and oceans.
  • 69% of surface absorption is reradiated to space as longwave radiation
  • A large proportion of longwave radiation is radiated back to the Earth by clouds & greenhouse gases
• Constant levels of CO_2 help to maintain stable average temperatures worldwide.
• Before The Industrial Revolution, the natural greenhouse effect was constant.
  • The slow carbon cycle, volcanism, and sedimentation have been fairly constant over the last few centuries.
  • Natural exchanges between the slow and fast sections of the carbon cycle were relatively small.
  • There were small variations in atmospheric CO_2 up until the late 19th century.

Anthropogenic Interference

• A balanced carbon cycle is very important in maintaining other global systems.
• The Enhanced Greenhouse Effect
  • Since the 1750s (when industrialisation began in the UK), global concentrations of greenhouse gases like CO2 & CH4 have increased by more than 25%.
  • Since the 1980s, 75% of carbon emissions have come from burning fossil fuels.
• Human activities have led to more carbon being released into the atmosphere and less being absorbed:
  • Land Use Change: Accounts for a tenth of carbon release annually and impacts on short-term stores in the carbon cycle, such as the soil and atmosphere.
    • Farming Practices: In the Amazon, around 70% of deforestation is for cattle ranching. Cattle produce significant amounts of methane, further contributing to global warming. Scientists are considering whether feeding cows different foods would help to reduce their methane emissions.
    • Fertilisers are a significant source of greenhouse gases as well as rice padi fields, from which methane emissions have increased as a result of increased productivity due to higher CO_2 levels. More sustainable grains and seeds like quinoa are being considered as substitutes, which require less water to grow.
    • Deforestation: In total, deforestation accounts for about 20% of all global greenhouse emissions. The main impact is when the cycle is interrupted and the land is used for other purposes, which then reduces carbon sequestration and land becomes a carbon source rather than a carbon sink.
    • Urbanisation: This is the process of replacing countryside with buildings and other similar infrastructure. It affects the local and global carbon cycles, by replacing vegetation and covering soils. Urban areas occupy 2% of the world’s land mass, but these areas account for 97% of all human caused global CO_2 emissions. Cement is an important building material, but releases carbon dioxide during production, contributing 7% to global carbon dioxide emissions each year, so sustainable options for recycling concrete are being developed.
    • Combustion of Fossil Fuels: This results in CO2, sulfur, and particulates being released into the atmosphere. If combustion occurs in a hot engine, NO2 will also be released (also a greenhouse gas) as nitrogen from the air fuses with oxygen. The amount of carbon is measured in gigatonnes (Gt) or petagrams (Pt). It is estimated that burning fossil fuels has added more than 180 Gt of carbon to the atmosphere.
• Increasing levels of greenhouse gases can affect the planet's climate, which can have implications for the water cycle, biomes, and wildlife living on Earth.

Implications of The Enhanced Greenhouse Effect

• Temperature
  • The amount of solar energy reaching the Earth varies depending on location, and is the main factor in determining climate temperatures.
  • Solar intensity is more intense at the equator, and reduces as you travel towards the poles.
  • The Albedo Effect will also determine the temperature of a location. Snow reflects solar radiation whereas dark forests absorb the most solar radiation.
• Climate
  • Rising levels of CO_2 in the atmosphere are believed to be the main contributor to an increase in average global temperatures. However, increases may vary:
    • In Europe, average temperatures are expected to increase more than the global average.
    • The largest increases are expected in Eastern and Northern Europe during winter and Southern Europe during summer.
    • Annual precipitation is expected to increase in Northern Europe but decrease in Southern Europe.
    • Extreme weather events are likely to increase in both frequency and intensity.
• Precipitation
  • Solar radiation is the most intense along the equator, so convectional rainfall is common and rainfall is generally very high.
  • Where convectional rainfall is likely to occur can be understood using the ITCZ Model.
  • Rainfall occurs at subtropical highs (mid-latitude) and the poles. Where air submerges and cools, water vapor condenses to form clouds and precipitation.
  • Where air rises, the air heats up and moisture will evaporate. This creates dry weather conditions.

Ecosystems

• Ecosystems help to regulate the carbon and hydrological cycles.
• Global Warming could impact the functioning of ecosystems.
• The two biomes most at risk are the Artic and the coral ecosystems.
• Species with low population numbers are already at high risk.
• There is already evidence showing that there will be change in species’ population size, timing of reproduction and migration.
• Marine organisms are also at risk. They are threatened with low oxygen levels and high rates of acidification.
• The impact on coastal ecosystems and low lying areas of sea levels rising could continue.
• The arctic region is warming twice as fast as the global average.
• Melting permafrost releases methane and carbon dioxide which increases the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
• This could lead to further Global Warming and even more melting of snow and ice, establishing a positive feedback loop.
• The Arctic tundra ecosystem has changed significantly; rapid warming has contributed to extensive melting of snow and ice during the summer months.
• Shrubs and trees which previously couldn’t live in the Arctic have begun to grow.
• In Alaska, the Red Fox has now spread northwards and competes with the Arctic Fox for food and territory.
• Not all scientists agree that permafrost melting will release CO2 and CH4. Some studies show that when permafrost melts, the carbon may remain in the soil and warmer temperatures lead to more decomposition which uses CO_2

Hydrological Cycle

• Increased rate of evaporation could lead to more moisture being held in the atmosphere rather than in the ocean.
• Increase in surface permafrost temperatures.
• Less sea ice and glacier storage.
• Change in capacity of terrestrial ecosystems.
• Change in river discharge - increased risk of flooding in winter and droughts in summer.

Energy Security

• Maximum energy security refers to the uninterrupted availability of energy sources at an affordable price.
  • Long term energy security mainly deals with timely investments to supply energy sources that will match economic developments and environmental needs.
  • Short term energy security focuses on the ability of the energy system to react promptly to sudden changes in the balance between energy demand and energy supply.
• There are several key points worth remembering about energy security:
  • It is generally evaluated at a national level, countries are either energy secure or insecure.
  • There are four aspects of supply: Availability, Accessibility, Affordability and Reliability.
  • It requires an accurate prediction of future energy.
  • Those countries that are most energy secure are those who can meet their energy demand using supply from within their boundaries.
• A good quality energy supply is consistent and secure and can be relied upon year round.
• There is unlikely to be any geopolitical problems and there is little risk from changing climatic conditions or natural hazards.
• A good quality energy supply involves different sources which contribute to the energy mix.
• Energy security is important for the functioning of the country and particularly its economy, including the operation of:
  • Most modes of transport
  • Lights in towns and cities
  • Heating homes
  • Domestic appliances
  • Necessary for most forms of manufacturing

Measuring Energy Usage

• Energy consumption is usually measured per capita (per person) using on the following measures:
  • Equivalent kilograms of oil per year (Kgoe/yr)
  • Gigajoules per year (GJ/yr) or Exajoules (EJ/yr)
  • Megawatt hours per year (Mwh/yr)
• Energy Intensity is an alternative measure of how efficiently a country is using its energy, in units of energy used per unit of GDP.
• A high energy intensity indicates a high price or cost of converting energy into GDP.
• It is generally recognized that energy intensity decreases with development; energy is used more efficiently and so the cost per unit of GDP reduces.

Energy Mix

• The energy mix refers to the range and proportion of energy produced by methods of production.
• These can include:
  • Non-renewable fossil fuels like oil, gas, and coal.
  • Recyclable fuels like nuclear energy and general waste.
  • Renewable energy like wind, solar, and geothermal.
• The global energy mix is dominated by fossil fuels.
• Primary energy sources produce energy by using a raw material, whereas secondary sources are modified primary energy sources which are easier to use e.g. oil into petrol and coal into electricity.

Primary Energy Sources:

• Coal
  • Accounts for 27% of global energy production.
  • Usage is decreasing as China shifts its energy mix away from coal and less polluting energy sources are used.
  • Most production occurs in China, ahead of the USA and India.
• Petroleum (Oil)
  • Accounts for 32% of global energy production.
  • Usage is still increasing as global energy demand increases.
  • Most usage in USA, China, and India and greatest production in the USA, Saudi Arabia, and Russia
• Natural Gas
  • With only 50% of the carbon emissions of coal and accounts for 22% of global energy production, which is increasing year on year.
  • Highest production in USA, Russia, and Iran and greatest consumption in USA, Russia, and China.
• Uranium
  • Has a very low carbon footprint that accounts for around 4% of global energy production, with most production in Kazakhstan and greatest amount of nuclear fission energy produced in the USA.
  • Production is likely to increase in the future.
• Biomass (May also be secondary)
  • In many LIC’s biomass is burned to produce energy. Burning organic matter such as wood is very inefficient.
  • However biomass produces a large proportion of energy in LIC’s, though it makes up a low proportion of worldwide energy consumption.
  • In HIC countries, biomass is being used more efficiently to produce energy, such as in biodiesel.
  • Overall decrease in use on a global scale.
• Hydroelectric Power (HEP)
  • Water drives turbines to produce electricity and is very efficient.
  • Hydropower has been used for many years as a renewable energy, but only accounts for a small percentage of global energy production.
  • Expected to increase globally, but with decreases in some HIC’s.
• Solar
  • Solar energy usage is increasing rapidly year on year as the technologies for solar power become cheaper.
  • China has the largest installed capacity, though production is much lower due to climatic conditions.
  • Growth in LIC countries as technology becomes cheaper.
• Wind
  • Other than hydropower and biomass, produces the most energy of renewable sources, with greatest production and capacity in China.
  • Technology is also spreading to LIC countries and offshore is increasing too.
• Wave
  • Very low generation, though technology is developing and a similar trend may be seen to that of solar and wind when the technology becomes cheaper.
• Tidal
  • So expensive that there are currently only a handful of installed tidal power schemes on a global scale.
  • The Swansea bay scheme was abandoned due to the potential costs that it would induce.
  • One successful project may lead to a multiplier effect.
• Geothermal Energy
  • Very efficient and reliable and operates all year round day and night.
  • Popular in countries with volcanic settings and likely to increase as technology spreads to LIC’s.
  • Currently does not contribute a large amount to the global energy mix.
• Global energy consumption varies, but is generally higher in northern hemisphere countries, which are more developed.

Energy Players

• There are key players who have important roles in securing energy pathways and controlling prices.
  • They explore, exploit, and distribute energy resources.
  • They own supply lines and invest in the distribution and processing of raw materials.
  • They respond to market conditions to increase the profits.
• Most energy players are TNCs although there are exceptions such as Russia’s state run Gazprom.
• Some names of key energy players include:
  • Saudi Aramco, Russian Gazprom, BP (UK), Shell (UK-Netherlands), ExxonMobil (USA), Petrobras (Brazil), Gazprom (Russia), PetroChina (China).
• TNCs are the most prominent energy players for a variety of reasons:
  • Some TNCs have more economic value than a small country, enabling the company to take action and invest in large-scale projects that a country may not afford.
  • TNCs can bypass political tensions and access sources otherwise restricted to other countries. In certain parts of the world, an MEDC trying to help to exploit an energy source in an LEDC could be seen as a direct threat to the LEDC.
  • TNCs may be inclined to invest in local infrastructure, logistics and development of workers’ villages. This benefits all; the TNC benefits from faster transport links and a happier workforce, whilst the government receives ‘free’ investment.
  • Of course, TNCs aren’t always beneficial; TNCs may encourage environmental degradation, exploiting workers, and unsustainable transportation (e.g. tankers liable to oil spills).

OPEC

• OPEC is an IGO with member countries which export oil and petroleum.
• OPEC producers control 81% of the world’s discovered oil reserves.
• Their mission is to unify the petroleum policies of its members to ensure the stabilization of oil markets.
• They also want to create:
  • an efficient and regular supply of oil to consumers.
  • a steady income for producers.
  • a fair return for those investing in the industry.
• In the past, OPEC set quotas depending on the condition of the world economy. Supplies were boosted when demand rose whilst supplies were cut if demand fell.
• Between 2012-2016, oil output was kept high to compete against the USA which produced vast amounts of oil through fracking. The flooding market caused a collapse in global oil prices.
• OPEC has also been accused of holding back production in order to increase prices and in turn increase profits for oil exporting nations. This can be detrimental to developing countries, who need vast, cheap amounts of oil to continue economic development and manufacturing.

National Governments

• Governments try to secure energy supplies for their country and they also regulate the role of private companies.
• EU governments are trying to reduce CO_2 emissions and reduce dependency on fossil fuels.

Consumers

• Consumers create demand with purchasing choices usually based on price.
• As a country becomes richer and more educated, the population can change their shopping habits to reflect their needs: locally sourced, environmentally friendly, reliable energy supply during winter and extreme weather.
• For example, lots of energy companies now have tariffs on imported or non-renewable sources to reduce energy insecurities or carbon-offset their energy. Here, money raised on non-renewable energy can fund environmental work such as afforestation, research into carbon capture and storage, etc..
• If consumers change their spending habits and only use these tariffs then companies will be encouraged to move towards more green energy.
• Consumers can have an impact on TNCs.

The Effect of Human Geography on Energy Supply

• Most countries are interdependent on energy sources - they import energy from other countries. This has geopolitical implications and requires the cooperation of other countries:
• Any stage in the energy supply chain may be used by countries as a political tool, to cause or resolve tension between countries.
• Different countries have varying ‘national interests’ .
• Example: Country (🌇) may want to import gas from country (🌅) to shift their energy mix away from coal at a low cost. This may require a pipeline passing through country (🌄) who do not want their natural landscape to be spoilt by a pipeline. Additionally 🌅 want the best price possible for their natural gas. This leads to complicated geopolitical negotiations.
• TNC’s may help if they have good links with 🌄 who they can compensate for building a pipeline through their landscape. Alternatively, TNC’s may be forced by powerful governments in 🌇 to spend additional money on protecting the natural landscape in 🌄, even if that would make no economic sense to the TNC. However, it would provide a natural gas pipeline and improve political relationships between 🌇 + 🌅.
• Energy supply can be a very confusing process, influenced by physical and human geography, TNCs, geopolitics, community groups and activists!
• You will need a case study that concerns energy supply and these factors.

Problems with Achieving Energy Security

• Fossil Fuel Supply
  • There is a mismatch between the supply and demand for fossil fuels. This is largely due to inequality in wealth and development, natural resource supplies and industrialization.
  • Consumption of coal is declining worldwide, more than other fossil fuels.
  • Over half of the world’s oil comes from OPEC and North American nations. However, since Europe has the largest demand for oil but produces very little, oil must be transported and traded. This may cause further insecurity and tensions.

Energy Pathways

• There are many ways of transporting energy between countries. Here are some energy pathways, and their weaknesses.
  • Pipelines are efficient in carrying billions of m3 of oil across the world between countries. Many of these pathways depend on international agreements, so influence global politics.
  • Around half of the world’s oil is transported using oil tankers though choke points (a key point in the logistics of energy, which can easily be disrupted). If choke points become blocked or threatened, then oil prices can rise very quickly and political tensions escalate.