Prenatal
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT!
Developmental critical issues refer to problems, concerns, or atypical patterns that occur during human growth and development.
These issues focus on disruptions in the normal developmental process
They may affect:
Physical development (e.g., growth delays)
Cognitive development (e.g., learning difficulties)
Emotional/social development (e.g., behavioral disorders)
They exist on a continuum:
Mild → slight delays or temporary problems (e.g Late talker in preschool, Adjustment difficulty in school)
Moderate → noticeable impairment (e.g Learning difficulty in reading (possible dyslexia), Behavioral problems in class)
Severe → long-term or permanent disorders (e.g Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), Intellectual Disability)
👉 Key idea: Development is expected to follow patterns, and any deviation becomes a “critical issue” when it significantly affects functioning
Mild → “Kaya pa, lilipas din” (manageable, temporary)
Moderate → “Kailangan ng tulong” (needs intervention)
Severe → “Pangmatagalan at malalim” (long-term, major impact)
A toddler who learns to speak later than peers → mild developmental delay
A child diagnosed with ADHD or autism → moderate to severe developmental issue
A malnourished child showing stunted growth → environment-related developmental disruption
Application requires you to identify whether a situation reflects normal variation or a developmental problem
SAMPLE SCENARIOS
🟢 MILD (Normal variation or temporary delay)
👉 Usually part of normal development, or easily resolved
1. Late walking toddler
A 16-month-old child in a barangay health center is not yet walking, while peers already can.
Still able to stand and crawl
Eventually walks by 18 months
👉 Interpretation: Mild delay / normal variation
2. Shy child in class
A kindergarten student refuses to recite or join group play during the first month of school.
Gradually becomes more comfortable
👉 Interpretation: Normal adjustment, mild issue
3. Temporary academic dip
A Grade 5 student’s grades drop after transferring schools.
New language (Filipino/English adjustment)
Improves after a few months
👉 Interpretation: Environmental adjustment, mild
4. Occasional tantrums
A 3-year-old throws tantrums when not given a cellphone.
Behavior is situational, not constant
👉 Interpretation: Age-appropriate behavior (mild concern if excessive)
MODERATE (Noticeable impairment, needs support)
👉 Clear impact on functioning
1. ADHD-like symptoms in school
A Grade 2 student in a public school:
Cannot sit still
Frequently interrupts
Cannot finish tasks
👉 Teacher reports consistent classroom disruption
👉 Interpretation: Moderate issue (possible ADHD, needs assessment)
2. Language delay affecting learning
A 6-year-old cannot form full sentences and struggles to understand instructions.
Behind peers academically
👉 Interpretation: Moderate developmental delay
3. Malnutrition affecting school performance
A child in a rural area shows:
Low energy
Difficulty concentrating
Frequent absences due to illness
👉 Interpretation: Environmental developmental issue (moderate)
4. Social withdrawal
A high school student avoids friends, group work, and interaction for months.
Not just shyness—persistent isolation
👉 Interpretation: Moderate emotional/social issue
SEVERE (Long-term or significant impairment)
👉 Major disruption, often lifelong
1. Severe malnutrition (stunting + cognitive delay)
A child in an underserved community shows:
Very low height-for-age
Delayed thinking and learning abilities
👉 Interpretation: Severe environmental developmental disruption
2. Autism with high support needs
A child:
Nonverbal
Does not respond to name
Engages in repetitive movements
👉 Needs SPED and therapy
👉 Interpretation: Severe developmental disorder
3. Cerebral palsy
A child has difficulty controlling movements and posture.
Needs assistive devices
👉 Interpretation: Severe physical developmental issue
4. Intellectual disability (severe)
A teenager cannot perform basic self-care independently.
Needs lifelong supervision
👉 Interpretation: Severe developmental issue
APPLICATION PRACTICE
Is it temporary or persistent?
Temporary → likely mild
Persistent → moderate or severe
Does it affect daily functioning?
No → mild
Yes → moderate/severe
Does it require intervention?
No → mild/normal
Yes → moderate/severe
Can the person function independently?
Yes → mild/moderate
No → severe
Typical vs Atypical Development
Typical → follows expected milestones
Atypical → delayed, advanced, or abnormal patterns
Severity
Does it interfere with daily functioning?
Timing
Early childhood issues often have greater long-term impact
Cause
Genetic vs environmental vs interaction
👉 Analysis means you don’t just identify the issue—you explain WHY and HOW it occurs
Answer this to yourself when should a delay be considered clinically significant?
Should intervention be immediate or observational?
Is the issue due to:
Temporary environmental conditions?
Permanent biological factors?
Evaluation requires decision-making using evidence (severity, duration, impact)
GENETIC INHERITANCE
Genetic inheritance is the process by which traits are passed from parents to offspring through genes (DNA).
Genes carry instructions for:
Physical traits (height, eye color)
Biological processes
Risk for certain disorders
There are two major types:
1. Mendelian (Single-Gene) Inheritance
Controlled by one gene pair (one from each parent)
Traits are either present or absent
Predictable patterns (dominant/recessive)
Also known as single-gene inheritance or monogenic inheritance
2. Polygenic Inheritance
Controlled by multiple genes
Traits show continuous variation
Influenced by environment
Quick Tip
Single gene = Mendelian
Many genes + environment = Polygenic
Whole chromosome problem = Chromosomal disorder (separate category)
If both parents carry a recessive gene (e.g., cystic fibrosis):
25% → affected child
50% → carrier
25% → unaffected
A child with genetic potential for intelligence:
Without proper education → potential not fully developed
👉 Application = using genetic rules to predict outcomes
In analyzing prefer this
Compare:
Feature | Mendelian | Polygenic |
|---|---|---|
Number of genes | One | Many |
Trait type | Categorical (yes/no) | Continuous (range) |
Predictability | High | Low |
Examples | Huntington’s | Intelligence |
Analysis shows that simple traits are easier to predict than complex ones
if you are a Psych Student please memorize or study the common chromosal abnormalities and Common sex linked abnormalites
MENDELIAN GENETICS (DETAILED)
🔹 UNDERSTANDING
Based on Mendel’s laws:
Each individual inherits two alleles
One allele from each parent
Types:
Autosomal dominant
One dominant allele is enough
Autosomal recessive
Requires two recessive alleles
X-linked
Gene located on X chromosome
Parent with Huntington’s (dominant):
Child has 50% chance of inheriting disorder
Female carrier of hemophilia:
Sons are more likely affected
Dominant traits:
Appear in every generation
Recessive traits:
Can skip generations
👉 Helps trace family patterns
POLYGENIC INHERITANCE (DETAILED)
Traits influenced by many genes working together
Each gene contributes a small effect
Produces quantitative traits (measured in degrees)
Examples:
Height
Skin color
Intelligence
Personality
Example:
A child inherits genes for tall height:
Poor nutrition → shorter than potential
Good nutrition → reaches full height
INHERITANCE PATTERNS
Dominant gene → expressed even with one copy
Recessive gene → expressed only with two copies
X-linked gene → located on X chromosome
Male (XY):
If X has mutation → disorder expressed
Why males are more affected in X-linked disorders:
No second X chromosome to compensate
GENETIC ABNORMALITIES
Please refer to studying the chromosal abnormalities
1. Numerical Abnormalities
Incorrect number of chromosomes
Caused by nondisjunction (failure to separate)
Examples:
Down syndrome (Trisomy 21)
Turner syndrome (XO)
Klinefelter syndrome (XXY)
2. Structural Abnormalities
Chromosome parts are:
Missing (deletion)
Duplicated
Rearranged
Examples:
Cri du Chat → deletion in chromosome 5
Williams syndrome → deletion in chromosome 7
A child with intellectual disability + physical features:
May indicate chromosomal abnormality
CAUSES OF GENETIC ABNORMALITIES
Inherited from parents
Spontaneous mutations during gamete formation
Environmental exposure
Radiation
Toxins
Errors in cell division
Meiosis or mitosis
sample scenario
Pregnant mother exposed to toxins → increased risk of abnormalities
Please do study at your own pace of Differentiate:
Genetic cause (internal)
Environmental cause (external)
Preventability:
Environmental → often preventable
Genetic → not preventable but manageable
Development is best explained by:
Interaction between heredity (genes) and environment (experience)
Genes = potential
Environment = expression
SEX-LINKED ABNORMALITIES
Sex-linked abnormalities are genetic disorders carried on the sex chromosomes (X or Y).
These are a subset of genetic abnormalities
Most commonly involve the X chromosome
The reason they are important is because sex chromosomes determine inheritance patterns differently from autosomes
X-linked disorders
Caused by mutation on the X chromosome
Males (XY) are more affected because:
They only have one X chromosome
No “backup” copy to mask the mutation
Types of X-linked disorders:
1. X-linked recessive
More common in males
Females are usually carriers (one normal X, one affected X)
Disorder appears only if male inherits the affected X
2. X-linked dominant
Affects both males and females
Only one mutated gene is needed
Affected fathers cannot pass X-linked conditions to sons, only to
daughters
3. Y-linked disorders
Mutation on Y chromosome
Only affects males
Passed strictly from father → son
TO KNOW
If a boy inherits a mutated X chromosome → he will express the disorder immediately
A female carrier of hemophilia:
May not show symptoms
But can pass it to sons
Father with X-linked disorder:
All daughters may inherit the gene
No sons are affected
Why males are more affected:
XY = no second X to compensate
Compare:
X-linked recessive → hidden in females, expressed in males
X-linked dominant → expressed in both sexes
Y-linked disorders:
Extremely rare
Only male lineage transmission
GENE–ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION
Genes and environment work together, not separately.
1. Reaction Range
Genes set a range of possible outcomes
Environment determines where within that range a person falls
Example:
Intelligence genes may allow range of IQ 90–130
Environment determines actual IQ within that range
2. Epigenetics
Genes can be turned on or off
Controlled by environmental influences
Important points:
Happens without changing DNA sequence
Strong during:
Pregnancy
Puberty
3. Genetic Imprinting
Expression depends on whether gene comes from:
Mother or father
Some genes are “marked” chemically during reproduction
Example:
Prader-Willi syndrome (imprinting disorder)
A child with genetic potential for intelligence:
Poor environment → lower expression
Enriched environment → higher expression
Prenatal exposure to stress:
Can alter gene expression via epigenetics
Reaction range = limits
Epigenetics = switches controlling expression
Imprinting = parent-origin effect
👉 All show that genes are not fixed destiny
INTERPLAY OF HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT
. Reaction Range (expanded)
Genetic limits define boundaries
Environment fills in expression
2. Canalization
Some traits are strongly genetically programmed
Very resistant to environmental change
Examples:
Basic motor development (walking)
Eye formation
👉 Only extreme environments can alter them
3. Genotype–Environment Interaction
Same environment affects different genotypes differently
Similar environments → different outcomes due to genetics
Analogy:
Diathesis-stress model (vulnerability + stress)
4. Genotype–Environment Correlation
Three types:
Passive
Parents provide both genes + environment
Child does not control it
Example:
Intelligent parents → provide books + genes
Evocative
Child’s traits evoke responses from others
Example:
Friendly child → receives more social interaction
Active (Niche-picking)
Individual chooses environment matching their traits
Example:
Athletic child joins sports teams
5. Nonshared Environment
Each sibling experiences different environments
Examples:
Different teachers
Different peer groups
Different parenting treatment
👉 Explains why siblings differ despite same home
Two siblings:
Same home, different friends → different personalities
Athletic child:
Chooses sports environment → reinforces ability
Shared environment ≠ identical outcomes
Nonshared environment explains most sibling differences
Genetic similarity explains sibling similarity
Challenges idea that family environment alone shapes children
Shows:
Genes influence environment
Environment influences gene expression
BEHAVIOR GENETICS
Behavior genetics studies how heredity and environment influence individual differences.
Key concepts:
1. Heritability
Statistical estimate of how much genetics contribute to trait differences in a population
Important:
Not about individuals
About population variation
2. Concordance
Degree to which twins share a trait
3. Twin Study
Compare:
Identical twins (100% shared genes)
Fraternal twins (50% shared genes)
Used to estimate genetic influence
4. Adoption Study
Compare:
Adopted child vs biological parents
Adopted child vs adoptive parents
Purpose:
Separate genetic vs environmental effects
Identical twins raised apart still show similarities → genetic influence
Adopted child resembling biological parents → genetic effect
Twin studies isolate genetic similarity
Adoption studies isolate environmental influence
Strength:
Helps separate nature vs nurture scientifically
Limitation:
Cannot fully isolate environment (shared prenatal conditions, etc.)
TERATOGENS & PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
A teratogen is any environmental agent that interferes with normal prenatal development.
It can cause physical, cognitive, or behavioral abnormalities
It affects the embryo or fetus during pregnancy
The severity depends on:
Timing of exposure
Dosage/intensity
Genetic vulnerability of the fetus
👉 Key idea: Not all fetuses are equally affected—genes influence susceptibility
A pregnant mother exposed to alcohol → risk of fetal alcohol spectrum disorder
Radiation exposure during pregnancy → possible birth defects
Medication misuse during pregnancy → developmental abnormalities
👉 Application = identifying real-life risks that can harm fetal development
Teratogens affect development based on:
Timing
Early pregnancy → major organ damage
Later pregnancy → growth or functional issues
Dose
Higher exposure → more severe effects
Genetic susceptibility
Some fetuses are genetically more resistant or vulnerable
👉 Analysis shows teratogens do not act uniformly; effects are interactive and variable
Prevention is possible in many cases (avoid toxins, proper prenatal care)
However:
Some exposures are unavoidable (environmental pollution, infections)
👉 Conclusion: Teratogens are a major but partially preventable developmental risk
Maternal factors are conditions in the mother that influence prenatal development and fetal health.
Nutrition
Age
Mental Health
Health ConditionsDiabetes
Heart defects
Neural tube defects
Macrosomia (abnormally large baby)
Hypothyroidism
Intellectual disability
Growth delays
Infections
Miscarriage
Developmental abnormalities
5. Attachment Foundations (Prenatal Bonding)
Emotional connection formed before and after birth
Key ideas:
Early bonding supports later emotional attachment
Influences caregiving behavior and infant development
Postnatal bonding practices:
Rooming-in
Baby stays in mother’s room in hospital
Promotes bonding and responsiveness
Kangaroo Care
Skin-to-skin contact between infant and parent
Especially for preterm or low birth weight babies
Improves temperature regulation, attachment, and survival
Pregnant woman with diabetes → monitor fetal growth for macrosomia
Mother experiencing high stress → fetus may show altered stress response after birth
Premature baby placed in kangaroo care → improved bonding and survival
Maternal factors affect development through:
Biological pathways
Nutrition, disease, hormones
Psychological pathways
Stress, anxiety, emotional bonding
Environmental pathways
Healthcare access, lifestyle, exposure to risks
Maternal health is one of the strongest predictors of fetal outcomes
Many risks are preventable (nutrition, stress management)
Some risks are unavoidable (genetic or medical conditions)
PATERNAL FACTORS
1. Sperm Quality
Can be affected by:
Age
Drug use
Exposure to toxins
2. Health Behavior
Smoking, alcohol use, and environmental exposure can:
Damage sperm DNA
Indirectly affect fetus via maternal exposure (secondhand effects)
Father exposed to toxins at work → increased risk of sperm mutation
Smoking father → reduced sperm quality and potential developmental risks
Unlike maternal factors, paternal influence is:
Indirect but still biologically important
Affects:
Genetic material quality (sperm DNA integrity)
POSTPARTUM PERIOD
The postpartum period is the time after childbirth when the mother adjusts physically and psychologically.
Lasts about 6 weeks
Body returns close to pre-pregnancy state
Physical and emotional changes:
Fatigue and exhaustion
Emotional fluctuations
Hormonal changes
New mother feeling extreme fatigue → difficulty caring for infant
Emotional instability after birth → may affect bonding and confidence
Postpartum effects include:
1. Physical adjustment
Recovery from childbirth
Hormonal shifts
2. Emotional adjustment
Mood changes
Anxiety or sadness
3. Functional impact
Difficulty managing daily tasks
Reduced confidence in parenting
POSTPARTUM MOOD DISORDERS
1. Postpartum Blues
Mild emotional disturbance
Symptoms:
Sadness
Anxiety
Irritability
Appears shortly after birth
Lasts 1–2 weeks
Usually resolves naturally
2. Postpartum Depression
More severe condition
Appears around 4 weeks after delivery
Lasts 2+ weeks or longer
Symptoms:
Intense sadness
Anxiety
Hopelessness
Difficulty functioning daily