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Humanism: a cultural movement that revived classical Greek and Roman ideas, placing human experiences and achievements at the center of intellectual and artistic pursuits. In modern times, humanism often aligns with secularism, human rights, and a commitment to education and social welfare.

Secularism: a shift in focus from primarily religious and spiritual matters to more worldly, non-religious concerns. During the Renaissance, thinkers, artists, and scholars began to emphasize human experiences, achievements, and interests in the here and now, rather than centering all intellectual and cultural life around the Church and religious doctrine. This was not a rejection of religion, but rather a broadening of intellectual horizons to include subjects like science, philosophy, art, politics, and literature that were not strictly tied to theological concerns.

Civic Humanism: a form of humanism that emerged during the Renaissance, particularly in Italy, which emphasized active participation in public life and the promotion of the common good. It combines classical humanist ideas, such as the study of ancient Greek and Roman texts, with a strong focus on civic responsibility and political engagement. (political science)

Individualism: refers to the emerging emphasis on the unique potential, autonomy, and worth of the individual, rather than the collective focus on community or the Church that had predominated in the medieval period. During the Renaissance, thinkers and artists began to celebrate the capabilities, talents, and achievements of individuals, encouraging personal expression, self-reliance, and the pursuit of one's own goals and identity.

Nepotism: practice of favoring relatives, especially family members, in the distribution of positions of power, wealth, and influence, often within the Church or political institutions. This practice was widespread in both religious and secular contexts during the period, as powerful leaders, particularly popes and monarchs, would often appoint their relatives to high-ranking positions regardless of their qualifications.

New Monarchies: centralized states that emerged in Western Europe in the late 15th and early 16th centuries. These monarchies were characterized by the consolidation of power by kings and queens who strengthened their authority at the expense of the nobility, feudal lords, and other traditional power structures.

Printing Press: one of the most important technological innovations of the Renaissance, invented by Johannes Gutenberg around 1440. The printing press used movable type to reproduce texts quickly and accurately, revolutionizing the spread of information. The printing press facilitated the mass production of books and written materials, making knowledge more accessible to a broader audience. This contributed to the spread of Renaissance ideas, humanism, and classical learning across Europe.

The Prince: In The Prince, Machiavelli offers pragmatic advice to rulers on how to gain and maintain power. He argues that political leaders must be willing to use any means necessary, including deceit and manipulation, to achieve their goals. Machiavelli famously separates politics from morality, suggesting that a successful ruler must prioritize the stability of the state over ethical considerations. Emphasizes power over virtue. “The ends justify the means”.

Columbian Exchange: introduced new crops like potatoes, tomatoes, and maize to Europe following Columbus’ voyages to the New World in 1492, which significantly improved diets and food security. In contrast, European livestock, such as horses and cattle, transformed Native American agriculture and transportation. However, it also brought devastating diseases like smallpox to the Americas, leading to the deaths of millions of Indigenous people.

Mercantilism: advocates for a nation's economic prosperity by maximizing exports and minimizing imports, thus accumulating wealth, especially in the form of gold and silver. Under mercantilism, colonies were seen as sources of raw materials and markets for the mother country's manufactured goods. Mercantilist policies included strict government regulation of trade, protective tariffs, and the establishment of monopolies. The wealth generated was meant to strengthen the state's military and political power.

Price Revolution: period of rapid inflation that occurred in Europe during the 16th and early 17th centuries. This inflation was primarily driven by the influx of precious metals, particularly silver, from the New World, which greatly increased the money supply. The rising prices for goods and services eroded the purchasing power of wages, particularly hurting the lower classes. It also benefited merchants and landowners, who profited from higher prices for their products.

Joint-Stock company: type of business organization that emerged in the Renaissance and early modern period, where investors (shareholders) pooled their capital to fund large ventures, such as overseas trade and colonization, and shared in the profits or losses. Joint-stock companies like the British East India Company and the Dutch East India Company played crucial roles in expanding European trade networks and establishing colonies.

Treaty of Tordesillas: an agreement between Spain and Portugal, mediated by the Pope, signed in 1494. The treaty granted Spain control over most of the Americas, while Portugal was given rights to territories in Africa, Asia, and Brazil. This division shaped the colonial boundaries of the Americas and influenced the patterns of European colonization.

Triangular Trade: the three-legged trade route that connected Europe, Africa, and the Americas during the transatlantic slave trade. The trade system involved the exchange of goods, slaves, and raw materials. The Triangular Trade system was a cornerstone of the Atlantic economy and had devastating effects on African societies due to the large-scale human suffering and displacement caused by the slave trade.

3 G’s- God, Glory, Gold: the main motivations behind European exploration and colonization during the Age of Exploration (15th to 17th centuries)

Niccolò Machiavelli: Italian Renaissance political philosopher, historian, diplomat, and writer, best known for his work The Prince (1513). Machiavelli is often considered the father of modern political science because of his pragmatic approach to politics, which emphasized the effective use of power and the necessity for rulers to be cunning and pragmatic, rather than strictly moral.

Desiderius Erasmus: Dutch Renaissance humanist, theologian, and scholar who is widely regarded as one of the greatest intellectual figures of the Northern Renaissance. Erasmus was a leading proponent of Christian humanism, which sought to reform the Church by emphasizing a return to the original teachings of Christ and the study of classical texts. His calls for reform influenced the Protestant Reformation, although he remained committed to reforming the Church from within rather than breaking away from it.

Prince Henry the Navigator: Portuguese prince and patron of explorers during the early days of the Age of Exploration. He played a crucial role in the development of maritime exploration by sponsoring expeditions along the west coast of Africa. His support helped lay the groundwork for Portugal’s later dominance in global exploration.

Francesco Petrarch: Italian scholar, poet, and one of the earliest humanists. He is often considered the "Father of Humanism" because of his revival of classical Latin texts and his emphasis on the study of classical antiquity as a means of understanding human nature and morality. Petrarch’s work laid the intellectual groundwork for the Renaissance.

Leonardo da Vinci: Italian polymath (someone who excels in many fields) who epitomized the Renaissance ideal of a "universal genius." He excelled in multiple fields, including painting, sculpture, engineering, anatomy, architecture, and science. Leonardo's curiosity and inventive mind led him to make groundbreaking contributions across a wide range of disciplines. Leonardo’s work exemplifies the spirit of the Renaissance in its blending of art and science.

1438 - The Habsburgs of Austria began their dominance in the Holy Roman Empire, using dynastic marriages to increase their influence.

1453 - Fall of Constantinople to Sultan Mehmet II, ending the Byzantine Empire and impacting the balance of power in Europe.

1455 - Johannes Gutenberg developed the first movable type printing system, significantly impacting the spread of knowledge and literacy.

1485 - Henry Tudor (Henry VII) won the Battle of Bosworth Field, marking the end of the Wars of the Roses and the beginning of the Tudor dynasty in England.

1495-1510 - Foreign armies, particularly French and Spanish, occupied Italy during the Italian Wars, ending the Peace of Lodi.

1513 - Niccolò Machiavelli wrote The Prince, offering a new approach to political strategy and statecraft.

1527 - Sack of Rome by the Spanish, marking the end of the Renaissance period in Italy.

1389 - Battle of Kosovo, a significant defeat for the Serbs by the Ottomans, impacting the balance of power in the Balkans.

1415 - John Hus was burned at the stake at the Council of Constance, inciting the Hussite Wars in Bohemia.

1417 - End of the Great Schism at the Council of Constance, restoring a single pope to the papacy.

1419 - Prince Henry of Portugal established a navigation school, which was pivotal in supporting Portuguese exploration.

1441 - The Portuguese reached the Senegal River basin and began the slave trade.

1471 - The Portuguese discovered the “Gold Coast” of Africa, opening trade for gold, slaves, and ivory.

1488 - Bartholomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope, marking a significant milestone in Portuguese exploration.

1492 - Christopher Columbus sailed and mistook the Bahamas, Cuba, and the Dominican Republic for Southeast Asia, initiating European exploration in the Americas.

1494 - The Treaty of Tordesillas was signed, dividing the New World between Spain and Portugal to settle disputes over newly discovered lands.

1509 - Admiral Albuquerque defeated the combined Turkish and Indian fleets, establishing Portuguese control over the spice trade by setting up the port of Goa.

1511 - Albuquerque expanded Portuguese exploration to Malacca, further establishing Portuguese dominance in the spice trade.

1513 - Vasco Núñez de Balboa crossed Panama and discovered the Pacific Ocean.

1519 - Ferdinand Magellan began his circumnavigation of the world, a landmark voyage in global exploration.

1530 - Francisco Pizarro invaded the Inca Empire, which was ravaged by smallpox and civil war.

1542 - The encomienda system was ended due to Bartolomé de las Casas’ advocacy against the exploitation of Native Americans.

16th Century - An estimated 275,000 slaves were exported during this period, highlighting the growth of the transatlantic slave trade.

17th Century - The slave trade reached one million slaves, reflecting its expansion and significance.

18th Century - The slave trade peaked with six million slaves before declining in the 19th century.

1770s - The decline of the transatlantic slave trade began.

1807 - The British Parliament passed legislation to end the slave trade, though slavery continued in some regions until the 1860s.

1793 - Lord Macartney's attempt to open further trade with China was rejected, reflecting China's resistance to Western influence.

1603 - The Tokugawa shogunate established centralized rule in Japan, affecting its interaction with Western powers.

1663 - Canada became an official French colony, marking an important moment in French expansion in North America.

1664 - The British captured New Netherland from the Dutch, renaming it New York.

1650 - The English established a lucrative triangular trade in cotton from India to spices in the East.