10/14 Relationships and Generalizability

Relationships & Broader Societal Contexts

Date: 10.14.2025

Overview

  • Brief Quiz Recap

  • Generalizability

  • Considerations in Psychology

  • Minority Stress Theory

  • Relationships and…

    • Gender

    • Sexual Orientation

    • Race/Ethnicity

    • Culture

Generalizability

Definition

  • Generalizability: How well the findings from research can be applied to a larger group of people or situations.

  • Considers:

    • Sample representation

    • External validity

    • Replication

Sample Representation

  • Population: The entire group of people under study.

  • Sample: The specific group of people observed in empirical research; it is a subset of the larger population.

  • Importance of how well the sample reflects the wider population to enhance generalizability.

External Validity

  • Refers to the degree to which the results of studies can be applied to other situations, people, cultures, etc.

  • Key questions:

    • Do the findings translate to the world at large?

Replication

  • Replication: The process of repeating a study to determine if the same results can be attained again.

  • Importance:

    • False positives are more common than presumed (Simmons, Nelson, & Simonsohn, 2011).

    • It impacts the assumptions we draw from research findings.

False-Positive Psychology: Undisclosed Flexibility in Data Collection and Analysis

  • Authors: Joseph P. Simmons, Leif D. Nelson, and Uri Simonsohn.

  • Findings show significant flexibility in data collection and analysis leading to inflated false-positive rates, contrary to the nominal endorsement of a low rate of <0.05.

    • Researchers often have a higher chance of falsely reporting evidence of an effect rather than accurately reporting its absence.

  • The article discusses the ease with which statistically significant evidence can be misrepresented and proposes a

    • Simple disclosure-based solution involving six requirements for authors and four guidelines for reviewers with minimal publication burden.

Generalizability and Methodology

  • Methodology and analysis are key to generalizability issues.

  • Decisions made by researchers significantly influence the potential outcomes detectable in studies.

  • Issues in Generalizability:

    • Research often relies heavily on a certain type of sample: WEIRD (Western Educated Industrialized Rich Democratic) contexts (Henrich, Heine & Norenzayan, 2010).

Metascience

  • Psychological Science Is Not Race Neutral:

    • Authors: Cydney H. Dupree and Michael W. Kraus.

    • Analyzes racial inequality in psychological science, noting that editors, authors, and participants are predominantly White.

    • Three contributing factors to racial inequality in psychology:

    • Racial ignorance

    • Threats to belonging

    • Racial-progress narratives.

  • Stresses the need for journals and authors to address and reduce racial inequality in research and practice contexts.

Challenges in Generalizability

  • Difficulties:

    • Accessing certain populations

    • Trust in scientific findings among marginalized groups

    • Reliance on technology for data collection

    • Insufficient funding for diverse research samples.

Minority Stress Theory

Key Hypothesis

  • Excessive exposure to social stress, including discrimination, prejudice, and stigma contributes to health disparities among gender/sexual minorities.

Stressors

  • Distinguish between proximal and distal stressors.

Predictions

  • Minority stress predicts:

    • Emotion dysregulation

    • Psychopathology e.g., depression and anxiety disorders.

  • Has implications for clinical practices aimed at resilience-building and DEI (Diversity, Equity, Inclusion).

  • References: Meyer (2003); Frost & Meyer (2023).

Minority Stress Processes

  • Distal Processes:

    • Experiences of prejudice events.

  • Proximal Processes:

    • Expectations of rejection

    • Concealment of identity

    • Internalized homophobia.

  • Characteristics of Minority Identity:

    • Prominence

    • Valence

    • Integration.

Vicarious Effects of Discrimination

Research Question

  • Examined whether experiences of discrimination can affect partners or relationships.

Sample Size

  • Study involved 1,949 couples.

Methodology

  • Self-reported discrimination based on categories like age, race/ethnicity, gender.

Measured Variables

  • Self-rated health

  • Depressive symptoms

  • Relationship strain.

  • References: Wofford, Defever, & Chopik (2019).

Findings on Vicarious Effects

  • Actor discrimination leads to poorer self-rated health, increased depression, and more relationship strain.

  • Partner discrimination similarly correlates with poorer self-rated health, increased depressive symptoms, and relationship strain.

  • Conclusion: Stressors affecting close partners significantly influence individual experiences.

Gender

Definition

  • Gender encompasses the attitudes, traits, and behaviors attributed by a culture as masculine or feminine.

Gender Differences

  • Women typically excel in expressing emotions compared to men.

  • Women often seek emotional support more frequently than men.

  • Women emphasize a partner's social class in mate preferences, whereas men value physical attractiveness.

  • References: Karney & Bradbury chapter on Gender (2024).

Gender and Emotional Expression on Social Media

Category

Self-Identified Women

Self-Identified Men

Common Words/Ethos

excited, happy, wonderful, sister, adorable

government, freedom, sports, battle, fight

Common Emoticons

<3, :), xoxo

shit, holy, fuck

  • Adapted from Park et al. (2016).

Summary of Gender Differences

  • Gender differences exist across various domains including: aggression, communication, mate selection, personality, sexuality, and well-being.

  • Notably, the average differences are small, with considerable overlap between genders.

  • References: Karney & Bradbury (2024).

Sexual Orientation

Population Similarities

  • Gay, lesbian, and straight individuals seek similar relationship qualities: affection, dependability, and shared interests.

  • They report similar levels of love and satisfaction in romantic relationships.

  • Variability exists in sexual frequency and conflict topics (finances, sex, chores, etc.).

Population Differences

  • LGBTQ+ individuals face unique minoritized identities and associated stressors.

  • Approximately 50% of relationships continue post-transition, while 54% cite transitioning as a breakup reason.

  • Relationship commitment correlates with reduced internalized stigma and psychological distress.

  • Bisexual individuals experience stigma from both within and outside the LGBTQ+ community.

  • References: Meier et al. (2013); Gamarel et al. (2019); Amodeo (2019).

Stereotypes in Media

Think-Pair-Share Activity

  • Brainstorm three examples of gender/sexual orientation stereotypes seen in media (TV/movies/social media).

  • Discuss what these stereotypes convey about norms and behaviors.

Relationships across Cultures

Race and Relationship Outcomes

  • Discrimination leads to decreased relationship functioning among Black Americans (Rice et al., 2023).

  • The Mundane Extreme Environmental Stress (MEES) Model applies here.

  • Historically, marriage rates showcase a disparity where White individuals marry more than Black individuals.

  • Black couples tend to report lower relationship satisfaction compared to White and Hispanic couples.

  • The relationship quality is positively linked to physical health across racial/ethnic lines.

  • References: Crissey (2005); McShall & Johnson (2015).

Interracial Relationships

  • Some interracial couples avoid public association to circumvent scrutiny (Killian, 2003).

  • Disclosure to family poses challenges for many interracial couples (Byrd & Garwick, 2006).

  • Disparate views on racial discrimination can lead to conflict (Byrd & Garwick, 2006).

  • Some partners perceive a responsibility to educate their non-minoritized partners about experiences (Rice et al., 2023).

Interracial vs. Intraracial Couples

  • No significant differences in conflict patterns, coping strategies, and attachment between interracial and intraracial couples have been observed; outcomes hinge on community norms and social network approval (Troy et al., 2005; Brooks, 2021).

Love Across Cultures

Universal Experience

  • Romantic love is a universal experience evident across global cultures (Fletcher et al., 2015).

  • Brain imaging (fMRI) shows similar brain activity in individuals from both U.S. and Chinese samples viewing partner images (Xu et al., 2011).

  • Individualistic cultures (e.g., U.S.) emphasize love as a primary marriage reason more so than collectivistic cultures (e.g., China).

Arranged Marriages

  • Definition: A marriage where one’s spouse is chosen primarily by family.

  • Types:

    • Planned: fully arranged with minimal meeting before the wedding (most modern arranged marriages are less stringent).

    • Delegation/Chaperoned: the child expresses qualities desired in a partner.

    • Joint Venture: both child and parent collaborate in searching for a match.

  • References: Batabyal (2001); Zaidi & Shurayidi (2002); Merali (2012).

Communication and Culture

  • Diverse communication styles and preferences are evident among partners.

  • European Americans favor direct communication more than Chinese individuals.

  • Relationship satisfaction is affected by whether partners use preferred communication styles (Ge et al., 2022).

Wrap-Up

  • Methodology and the resources available to researchers substantially influence generalizability.

  • There are broad similarities in relationship features, but the specifics of behaviors, affects, and cognitions are influenced by cultural and social identity.

  • Although research is making strides in addressing these differences, more intersectional studies are needed.

Course Reminders

  • QT due Wednesday by 8:00 PM

  • Reaction Papers are due Friday by 11:59 PM

  • Guiding Question: Are findings from relationship science generalizable to people across varying backgrounds?