Ethical Theories

Aristotle

  • Introduction to Aristotle

    • A Greek philosopher from Ancient times.

    • Born in Stagira on the border of Greece and Macedonia.

    • His father was a personal friend of the King of Macedonia.

    • Aristotle befriended the King's son, Philip.

    • He was a student of Plato and attended school at the Academy.

    • Aristotle tutored Alexander the Great.

    • Founded his own school, called the Lyceum, in Athens, Greece.

Questions on Aristotle’s Ethics

  1. How does Aristotle define 'happiness'?

    • Happiness is considered an enduring state that reflects the fulfillment of one's potential, indicating that it is linked to the exercise of virtue and the realization of one's purpose.

  2. In Aristotle's view, what is the aim of ethics?

    • The aim of ethics is to discover what is good for human beings, guiding them towards their potential, achieving what they are meant to be, and understanding their internal moral compass.

  3. What is meant by teleological ethics?

    • Teleological ethics concerns the design or purpose of something, focusing on the end goals or purposes inherent in actions.

  4. According to Aristotle, what does it mean to 'act ethically'?

    • To act ethically means to engage the capacity for reason to develop good character and make decisions that uphold virtue.

  5. How did Aristotle define the Golden Mean? Why is virtue important to Aristotle?

    • The Golden Mean is the desirable middle between two extremes, defining virtue as a balanced state in one's actions. Virtue is paramount as it leads to proper ethical behavior and happiness.

  6. Identify at least five virtues you have developed in your own life. Give one example for each.

    • Patience: Waiting calmly during long periods without becoming upset.

    • Perseverance: Continuing to strive towards a goal despite obstacles encountered.

    • Honesty: Always telling the truth in interactions with others.

    • Compassion: Volunteering time to help those in need.

    • Courage: Standing up for what is right, even when it’s difficult.

Immanuel Kant

Questions on Kant’s Ethics

  1. What does Kant mean by Theoretical Reason?

    • Theoretical reason pertains to reasoning that helps us understand how the natural laws and the law of cause and effect influence human behavior, focused on the capacity for understanding.

  2. What does Kant mean by Practical Reason?

    • Practical reason is the moral dimension guiding human behavior. It involves conscious choices based on moral principles dictating what individuals ought to do.

  3. From Kant's perspective, what is the aim of moral life?

    • The aim of moral life, according to Kant, is the pursuit of the good.

  4. What are the three practical principles Kant says are necessary to live a moral life?

    • God: Humans cannot achieve the supreme good through their power alone due to circumstances beyond their control.

    • Freedom: Humans are inherently free and duty-to-action oriented.

    • Immortality: There exists an afterlife to facilitate morality beyond one lifetime, as full moral achievement cannot be confined to a single existence.

  5. Why does Kant say we need to have a 'good will'?

    • A good will is essential because it reflects inner convictions and the autonomy necessary for ethical action.

  6. What role does 'duty' play in Kant's understanding of ethics?

    • Duty represents the moral obligation to act, where ethical actions are morally good only when done for the sake of duty itself and not from inclination. The motivation behind actions determines their moral worth.

  7. According to Kant, what is an ethical maxim?

    • An ethical maxim is a principle that dictates how every rational person would act if reason governed their actions fully; it offers guidance on how one ought to act universally.

  8. What does Kant mean by treating humanity as an end?

    • This statement emphasizes that individuals should never be treated merely as means to an end but always regarded with respect and dignity. The phrase "Become a law unto yourself" calls for autonomous moral decision-making based on good will.

Emmanuel Levinas

Impact of WWII on Levinas’ Ethics

  1. How did WWII impact Levinas' view of the human being?

    • Levinas was a prisoner of war; he experienced the loss of his family in the Holocaust, leading him to view ethics—instead of knowledge or power—as foundational to human existence. He believed that true humanity emerges through compassion for others, especially the vulnerable and oppressed.

  2. How does Emmanuel Levinas describe the Good?

    • Levinas characterizes the Good as infinite and beyond human comprehension. The Good is not something we can possess but is encountered indirectly through others, referred to as "traces" indicating God's presence.

  3. How does the 'human face' operate in Levinas's view of ethics?

    • The human face represents a face-to-face encounter with the Other, serving as a reminder of individual uniqueness and the moral obligation to recognize and respect this distinction.

  4. What does Levinas state about ethics and responsibility?

    • The human face instills a sense of responsibility in us, denoting our vocation or calling in life. Levinas shifts focus from God to our ethical responsibilities towards our neighbors, with God's infinite goodness manifesting through interactions with others.