609eca6f9b9577dbf6455213_SS-APHuG

Unit 1: Foundations of Geography

The 5 Themes of Geography

• Location: Divided into two categories:     * Relative Location: The position of a place in relation to other places.     * Absolute Location: The exact position on Earth, typically identified by latitude and longitude coordinates.

• Place: Refers to the distinctive physical and human characteristics of an area.

• Human-Environment Interaction: Explores how humans interact with, adapt to, and modify their environment.

• Movement: Concerns the mobility of individuals, goods, and ideas. It analyzes the patterns that alter human spatial interactions, including the accessibility and connectivity of places.

• Regions: An area defined by specific criteria with one or more distinctive characteristics.

Geography Categorization

• Physical Geography: Focuses on natural facets such as topography, climate (frequently categorized by the Koppen system), flora and fauna, and soil composition.

• Human Geography: Focuses on human activity including culture, population dynamics, economic systems, political structures, urban development, and agriculture.

Map Distortion and Thematic Mapping

• 4 Forms of Distortion: When representing the 3D Earth on a 2D map, distortion occurs in:     1. Shape of the area.     2. Direction between points.     3. Distance between points (may increase or decrease).     4. Relative size of the place.

• Thematic Maps:     * Isoline Maps: Use lines of equal value to represent data like elevation, barometric pressure, or temperature.     * Choropleth Maps: Data is represented by shading, patterns, or colors within predefined areas.     * Graduated Symbol Map: The size of a symbol is proportionate to the intensity of the variable being mapped.     * Dot Map: The amount of dots represents the frequency of a data variable.     * Cartogram: The size of a political unit (e.g., a country) is intentionally distorted to display the value of a specific data piece.

LACEMOPS: Factors Affecting Climate

• L ~ Latitude: The farther from the equator, the colder it becomes. Direct rays of the sun are always located between the tropics.

• A ~ Air Masses: In the Northern Hemisphere, cold air moves from polar regions in the north, while hot air comes from the southern tropics (reversed in the Southern Hemisphere).

• C ~ Continentality: Water moderates climate because it takes longer to heat and cool; inland areas experience more extreme weather.

• E ~ Elevation: Higher elevations are colder. The vertical climate formula states that temperature decreases by $3.5^{\circ}$ for every $1,000\,\text{ft}$ increase in elevation.

• M ~ Mountain Barriers: Mountains cause the orographic effect: the windward side (facing the wind) receives moisture, while the leeward side (facing away) is dry, often creating deserts.

• O ~ Ocean Currents: Cold currents from the poles bring dry, cool air; warm currents passing the equator bring warm, wet air.

• P ~ Pressure Cells: High pressure consists of heavy, cold air; low pressure consists of warm, light air. Heat rises, and cooler, denser air sinks. Air mass at the equator moves to the $30^{\circ}$ mark. High pressure exists at $30^{\circ}$, and low pressure at $60^{\circ}$.

• S ~ Storms: Thunderstorms occur where polar and western lines meet. Cyclones in the Northern Hemisphere spin counter-clockwise; in the Southern Hemisphere, they spin clockwise.

Map Projections

• Goode’s Interrupted/Homolosine Equal-Area: Minimizes distortion by being interrupted; proportional, but interrupts Antarctica and the oceans.

• Conic: Maintains accurate distance and directions; best for relatively small zones.

• Planar Projection: Most accurate at the central point; shows only half the Earth at a time and stretches significantly at the edges.

• Mercator: Distorts the shape and size of landmasses (especially near poles), but provides good direction and maintains distance; used primarily for sea travel.

• Robinson: Spreads distortion across shape, size, and direction; landforms appear relatively correct/proportional. However, poles are shown as straight, flat lines and appear too large; longitude lines are not parallel.

• Gall-Peters Projection: Sizes of landmasses are accurate, showing geographic relationships better; however, distances are inaccurate and shapes are distorted. Latitude and longitude are parallel.

• Fuller Projection: Does not use cardinal directions; maintains accurate size and shape of landmasses.

• Winkel Tripel Projection: Rounder in shape with distortion occurring near the North and South poles.

Economic Classification of Countries

• Primary: Countries focused on extracting raw resources from the Earth.

• Secondary: Countries involved in manufacturing or refining products from raw materials.

• Tertiary: Countries providing services.

• Quaternary: Countries providing information and management services.

• MDC (Most Developed Countries): Examples include the United States, Canada, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, and Western European countries.

• NIC (Newly Industrialized Countries): Examples include China, India, Malaysia, Thailand, the Philippines, South Africa, Turkey, Brazil, and Mexico.

• LDC (Least Developed Countries): Examples include Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, and Burundi.

Unit 1 Vocabulary and Concepts

• Cartography: The science of mapmaking. The first map was created by Eratosthenes ($276$-$194\,\text{BC}$). Advances continued through Ptolemy and later Chinese and European scholars.

• Reference Maps: Show the geography of an area without political data.

• Scale: The relation of a feature's size on a map to its actual size on Earth.     * Small Scale: E.g., $1/1,000,000$ (shows more area, zoomed out, high distortion).     * Large Scale: E.g., $1/25,000$ (shows less area, zoomed in, less distortion).

• Scale of Analysis: How data is organized (Global, National, Regional, Local). If a world map colors countries differently, the Map Scale is global, but the Scale of Analysis is national.

• Absolute Distance: Distance measured in quantitative units, such as miles or kilometers.

• Relative Distance: Qualitative distance, such as "$20\,\text{min}$ south."

• Clustering vs. Dispersal: Clustering is how close objects are; dispersal is how far they are spread out.

• Time Zones: There are $24$ time zones. $360/24 = 15^{\circ}$, so a time zone changes every $15^{\circ}$ of longitude.

• Greenwich Mean Time (GMT): Centered at the Prime Meridian ($0^{\circ}$) in Greenwich, England.

• GPS vs. GIS: GPS provides absolute mathematical position via satellites; GIS is a computer system used to layer and analyze data.

• Site vs. Situation: Site refers to physical characteristics (climate, labor force); Situation is the location of a place relative to others.

• Types of Regions:     * Formal: Uniform/Homogeneous; based on a common trait (e.g., language, political boundaries).     * Functional (Nodal): Has a center and diffuses outward (e.g., pizza delivery area, newspaper circulation).     * Perceptual (Vernacular): Exists due to cultural identity (e.g., the "Midwest").

• Diffusion Types:     * Relocation: Spreads through physical movement (e.g., migrants bringing language).     * Expansion: Additive process.         * Hierarchical: Spreads through nodes of authority.         * Contagious: Rapid, widespread across a population.         * Stimulus: The underlying principle diffuses even if the specific characteristic changes (e.g., McDonald’s burgers varying globally).

• Environmental Determinism: The physical environment causes social development and success.

• Possibilism: Humans can adjust and control the environment (e.g., Polders in the Netherlands).

Unit 2: Population and Migration

Global Population Distribution

• Two-thirds ($2/3$) of the world population is clustered in:     * East Asia: East China, Japan, the Koreas, Taiwan.     * South Asia: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka.     * Southeast Asia: Indonesia, Java, Philippines, Malaysia.     * Europe: Over $48$ countries including Germany, France, and Monaco.

• Cluster Sites: Low-lying areas, fertile soil, temperate climates, near oceans or rivers.

• Sparsely Populated Regions: Dry lands (Sahara), wet lands (Amazon), cold lands (Russia, Canada), and high lands (Mid-China).

Demographic Transition Model (DTM)

• Stage 1: Low Growth: Very high birth and death rates; no long-term natural increase. No countries are currently in Stage 1.

• Stage 2: High Growth: Rapidly declining death rates with very high birth rates; high natural increase. Result of the Industrial Revolution ($1750$) for Europe/North America, and the Medical Revolution ($1950$) for Africa, Asia, and Latin America (e.g., Nigeria, Congo).

• Stage 3: Moderate Growth: Rapid decline in birth rates, steady decline in death rates. The gap between CBR and CDR narrows (e.g., many transitioning countries in the early $20\text{th}$ century).

• Stage 4: Low Growth: Very low birth and death rates; Zero Population Growth (ZPG). Population change results mostly from immigration (e.g., Canada).

• Possible Stage 5: Decline: Low CBR, increasing CDR due to an elderly population; negative Natural Increase Rate (NIR) (e.g., Japan, Germany, Russia).

Epidemiologic Transition Model (ETM)

• Stage 1: Pestilence and famine (e.g., Black Plague).

• Stage 2: Receding pandemics due to improved nutrition and sanitation (e.g., Cholera in London).

• Stage 3: Degenerative diseases; decrease in infectious disease, increase in chronic disorders like cancer and cardiovascular disease.

• Stage 4: Delayed degenerative diseases; modern medicine extends life despite chronic issues.

• Possible Stage 5: Reemergence of infectious diseases due to virus evolution and resistance to antibiotics.

Population Policies

• Pro-natalist (Expansive): Encourages births. The USSR in $1944$ gave awards for pregnancy; Germany used the Cross of Honor for the German Mother.

• Anti-natalist (Restrictive): Discourages births. China implemented the "Later, Longer, Fewer" and "One Child Policy," offering rewards for compliance and penalties (withdrawn medical/education guarantees) for violations.

Ravenstein’s 11 Laws of Migration

1. Most migrants travel short distances.

2. Migration proceeds step-by-step.

3. Long-distance migrants prefer big cities.

4. Every migration stream produces a counter-stream.

5. Rural dwellers are more migratory than urban dwellers.

6. Women are more migratory within a country; men migrate more between countries.

7. Most migrants are adults; families are harder to transport.

8. Large cities grow more by migration than natural increase.

9. Migration volume increases with commerce and transportation improvements.

10. The major stream is rural to urban.

11. The primary cause for migration is economic.

Migration Terminology and Statistics

• Crude Birth Rate (CBR): Live births per $1,000$ people.

• Crude Death Rate (CDR): Deaths per $1,000$ people.

• Natural Increase Rate (NIR): Calculation: $\text{CBR} - ext{CDR} = \text{NIR}$ (expressed per $100$ / as a percentage). Average current NIR is $1.2\%$.

• Arithmetic Density: $\frac{\text{Total Population}}{\text{Total Land}}$.

• Physiological Density: $\frac{\text{Total Population}}{\text{Arable Land}}$. High density indicates stress on the land (e.g., Egypt).

• Agricultural Density: $\frac{\text{Farmers}}{\text{Arable Land}}$. Lower density suggests advanced technology (US/Canada vs. India/Bangladesh).

• Malthusian Theory: Population grows exponentially/geometrically, but food supply grows arithmetically/linearly.

• Dependency Ratio: Individuals too young (<15) or too old (>64) to work. Africa ($85\%$) vs. Europe ($47\%$).

• Brain Drain: The loss of skilled, educated workers from a country.

Unit 3: Cultural Patterns and Processes

Folk vs. Popular Culture

• Folk Culture: Isolated, homogeneous groups. Spreads slowly via relocation diffusion. Influenced significantly by local physical factors. Houses are built with local resources (stone, grass, wood, brick). Notable example: The Amish.     * Housing Beliefs: In Fiji, the eastern wall is sacred. In Java, houses face south toward the South Sea Goddess.

• Popular Culture: Large, diverse societies sharing similar behaviors. Transmitted through hierarchical, contagious, and stimulus diffusion. Distributed widely regardless of physical factors. Principal obstacle is lack of income.

Culture and Religion Basics

• Taboos: Social custom restrictions on food. Ancient Hebrews (no cloven feet), Muslims (no pork), Hindus (no cattle).

• Language Hierarchy: Language Family (Ancestral, no recorded history) -> Branch (Old, common origin) -> Group (Recent past, similar grammar).     * Largest Families: Indo-European and Sino-Tibetan (speak for $2/3$ of the world).     * Mandarin Chinese: Most used language on Earth.

• Religion Types:     * Universalizing: Appeals to all (Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, Sikhism). Known origins/founders.     * Ethnic: Appeals to one group in one place (Hinduism, Judaism, Animism). Unknown origins; holidays based on seasonal geography.

Specific Religious Details

• Christianity ($2.1\,\text{billion}$): Branches: Roman Catholic, Protestant, Orthodox. Originated in Bethlehem. Hierarchical diffusion via Emperor Constantine and relocation via missionaries.

• Islam ($1.5\,\text{billion}$): $83\%$ Sunni, $16\%$ Shiite. Origin: Mecca by Muhammad. Follows the 5 Pillars of Faith.

• Buddhism ($376\,\text{million}$): Core: 4 Noble Truths. Branches: Mahayana, Theravada, Vajrayana. Origin: Nepal/India by Siddhartha Gautama.

• Hinduism ($1\,\text{billion}$): Largest ethnic religion. Belief in the Vedas/Upanishads. Practices cremation in the Ganges River.

Cultural Processes Vocabulary

• Acculturation: Adopting traits of a larger group while maintaining original culture.

• Assimilation: Replacing original culture with a new one entirely.

• Syncretism: Blending religions (e.g., Halloween mixing Christian and Pagan traditions).

• Ethnocentrism: Judging another culture by one's own standards.

• Cultural Relative: Judging a culture based on its own standards.

Unit 4: Political Patterns and Processes

Devolution and State Shapes

• Devolution: Movement of power from central to regional government. Causes: Ethnocultural (Scotland, Spain's Basque/Catalonia), Economic, and Spatial. Examples: The "Velvet Divorce" of Czechoslovakia in $1993$, and Sudan's split between North (Muslim) and South (Christian).

• Shapes of States:     * Compact: Distance from center to edges is equal (e.g., Poland, Germany).     * Elongated: Potential isolation; long and narrow (e.g., Chile, Vietnam).     * Prorupted: Compact with a large projecting section (e.g., Thailand, DR Congo).     * Perforated: A state that completely surrounds another (e.g., South Africa surrounding Lesotho).     * Fragmented: Discontinuous pieces (e.g., Indonesia, Philippines).     * Landlocked: Lacks ocean access (e.g., Chad, Mongolia, Belarus).

Geopolitics and Maritime Law

• UNCLOS (Law of the Sea):     * Territorial Sea: $12\,\text{nautical miles}$ (n.m.); sovereign territory.     * Contiguous Zone: $24\,\text{nautical miles}$.     * Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ): $200\,\text{nautical miles}$; state manages all natural resources.

• Gerrymandering: Redrawing boundaries to favor a party. Includes "Wasted vote" (spreading opposition), "Excess vote" (concentrating opposition), and "Stacked vote" (linking like-minded voters).

• Theories of Global Power:     * Organic Theory: States are like organisms needing living space.     * Heartland Theory (Mackinder): Control of Eurasia is key to world domination.     * Rimland Theory (Spykman): Control of the Eurasian rim is key.

Boundary Types

• Antecedent: Existed before settlement (e.g., US/Canada border).

• Subsequent: Developed with cultural changes (e.g., Northern Ireland).

• Superimposed: Placed by powerful outsiders (e.g., Africa via the Berlin Conference of $1884$-$1885$).

• Relical: No longer functions but still visible (e.g., The Berlin Wall).

Unit 5: Agriculture and Rural Land Use

The Agricultural Revolutions

1. First (Neolithic) Revolution: Transition from hunting/gathering to plant and animal domestication.

2. Second Revolution: Period of mechanization and increased productivity in the $18\text{th}$-$19\text{th}$ centuries.

3. Third (Green) Revolution: Started in the $1940\text{s}$ with the export of wheat technology to Mexico. Use of GMOs, chemical fertilizers (Ammonium nitrate), and pesticides to increase yields.

von Thunen’s Model of Land Use ($1826$)

• Describes patterns of agricultural land based on transportation costs and shelf-life.

• Ring 1: Dairy and market gardening (perishable, labor-intensive).

• Ring 2: Managed Forest (lumber/fuel; very heavy to transport).

• Ring 3: Extensive Crops (grains/wheat).

• Ring 4: Grazing/Livestock (requires vast land; animals can walk to market).

Key Agricultural Terms

• Subsistence Agriculture: Farming for family consumption. Includes Slash and Burn (Fallow) and Pastoralism.

• Commercial Agriculture: Growing crops for sale and export. Includes Plantation Farming (single crop like coffee, tea, or palm oil).

• Aquaculture: Fish farming (e.g., catfish in Arkansas, tilapia in California).

• Desertification: Process of turning vegetated land into desert through human activity or overgrazing.

Unit 6: Industrial and Economic Development

Economic Sectors

• Primary: Resource extraction (Mining, Forestry).

• Secondary: Manufacturing/Processing.

• Tertiary: Services (Retailing, Education).

• Quaternary: Knowledge-based (Finance, Research).

• Quinary: High-level decision making (Government executives).

Development Indicators

• GDP (Gross Domestic Product): Dollar value of all goods and services within a country.

• GNI (Gross National Income): Total value including exports minus imports. Formula: $\text{GNI} = ext{Goods} + ext{Services} + ( ext{Exports} - ext{Imports})$.

• Human Development Index (HDI): UN measure based on social and economic indicators.

• Gini Coefficient: Measures income inequality within a country.

Rostow’s 5 Stages of Growth

1. Traditional Society (Primary products).

2. Preconditions for Takeoff (Investment in infrastructure).

3. Takeoff (Shift to industrial exports).

4. Drive to Maturity (Diffusion of technology).

5. Age of Mass Consumption (High-value consumer goods).

Industry Theories

• Wallerstein’s World Systems Theory: Divides the world into Core (MDCs), Periphery (LDCs), and Semi-periphery.

• Weber’s Least Cost Theory: Industrial location is based on minimizing costs. Includes Bulk-Gaining (product is heavier than inputs; locate near market) and Bulk-Reducing (inputs heavier; locate near resources).

• **Foot