AP Gov Unit 1

Government

  • The institution that creates and implements policies and laws that guide the nation and its citizens.

Policy

  • A government’s plan of action to address an issue; laws and regulations used to achieve goals.

Constituent

  • A person represented by an elected official.

Federalism

  • Division of power between the national and state governments.

Dual federalism

  • “Layer-cake” federalism: clear, separate powers for state and federal governments.

Cooperative federalism

  • “Marble-cake” federalism: federal and state governments share responsibilities and collaborate.

New Federalism / Devolution

  • Efforts to return power from the federal government back to the states.

Why states love and hate federal funding

  • Pros: extra money for programs; Cons: conditions, strings attached, and sometimes unfunded mandates.

Federal mandate

  • A federal requirement imposed on states, may be funded or unfunded.

Unfunded mandate

  • A federal requirement that states must carry out without federal funding (e.g., ADA accessibility requirements).

Categorical grant

  • Federal funds given to states for a specific purpose with strict conditions.

Block grant

  • Federal funds given to states for a broad purpose with fewer restrictions.

Interstate compact

  • An agreement between two or more states, usually requiring congressional approval.

Enumerated / Expressed powers

  • Powers explicitly listed in the Constitution for the national government (e.g., coin money, declare war).

Implied powers

  • Powers not stated explicitly but implied by the Necessary and Proper Clause.

Concurrent powers

  • Powers shared by both state and federal governments (e.g., taxation).

Reserved powers

  • Powers reserved to the states (10th Amendment) when not delegated to the federal government.

Necessary and Proper Clause (Elastic Clause)

  • Article I, Section 8: allows Congress to make laws needed to carry out its enumerated powers.

Commerce Clause

  • Gives Congress power to regulate commerce among states, with foreign nations, and with tribes.

Supremacy Clause

  • Constitution and federal laws take precedence over state laws.

Marbury v. Madison (1803)

  • Established judicial review (courts can declare laws unconstitutional).

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

  • Confirmed federal supremacy and upheld implied powers (federal bank case).

U.S. v. Lopez (1995)

  • Limited Congress’s commerce-clause power; struck down the Gun-Free School Zones Act as exceeding Congress’s authority.

Articles of Confederation – weaknesses

  • Weak central government, no power to tax, no national army, unicameral congress, states were sovereign.

Constitution – improvements over Articles

  • Stronger central government, separation of powers, power to tax, regulate commerce, creation of executive and judicial branches.

Shays’ Rebellion

  • 1786–87 uprising that highlighted the weakness of the Articles and helped push for a new Constitution.

The Framers

  • Delegates to the Constitutional Convention who drafted the U.S. Constitution.

Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise)

  • Created bicameral Congress: House by population, Senate with equal state representation.

Virginia Plan

  • Proposal for a strong national government with bicameral legislature based on population.

New Jersey Plan

  • Proposal for a unicameral legislature with equal representation for states.

Bicameralism vs Unicameral

  • Bicameral: two legislative chambers (House & Senate). Unicameral: single legislative chamber.

Three-Fifths Compromise

  • For representation and taxation, each enslaved person counted as three-fifths of a person.

Compromise on importation of slaves (Article I)

  • Congress forbidden to ban the importation of slaves before 1808.

Electoral College

  • Presidential electors chosen by states to formally elect the president.

Articles / Clauses that limit Congress (Article I, Sec. 9)

  • Limits include prohibitions on bills of attainder and ex post facto laws; habeas corpus suspension limited; (historically also included restrictions like slave importation until 1808).

Article IV (Fugitive Slave Clause historically)

  • Article IV included provisions that required states to return fugitive slaves (historical).

Article V (Amendment process)

  • Outlines proposal methods (2/3 Congress or national convention) and ratification (3/4 state legislatures or state conventions).

Why the framers made the amendment process difficult

  • To prevent quick, temporary changes by shifting majorities; requires broad consensus.

Impeachment process

  • House impeaches by majority (indictment); Senate holds trial and must convict by 2/3 to remove; Chief Justice presides for presidential trials. Grounds: treason, bribery, high crimes and misdemeanors.

Writ of habeas corpus

  • Court order requiring authorities to show lawful grounds for detaining someone.

Bills of attainder

  • Laws that punish people without trial; prohibited by the Constitution.

Ex post facto laws

  • Laws that retroactively punish actions that were legal when done; prohibited.

Bill of Rights

  • First ten amendments protecting individual liberties.

1st Amendment

  • Freedom of speech, press, assembly, petition, and religion.

2nd Amendment

  • Right to bear arms.

3rd Amendment

  • No forced quartering of troops in private homes during peacetime.

4th Amendment

  • Protection from unreasonable searches and seizures.

5th Amendment

  • Grand jury, no double jeopardy, no self-incrimination, due process, just compensation for takings.

6th Amendment

  • Right to speedy, public trial; counsel; confront witnesses; jury trial.

7th Amendment

  • Right to jury trial in civil cases over $20 (historical).

8th Amendment

  • No excessive bail or fines and no cruel and unusual punishment.

9th Amendment

  • Rights not listed in the Constitution are not necessarily denied to the people.

10th Amendment

  • Powers not delegated to the federal government are reserved to the states or the people.

Federalists

  • Supported the Constitution, favored stronger national government; included property owners, merchants, and elites; wrote the Federalist Papers.

Anti-Federalists

  • Opposed strong central government, favored states’ rights, demanded a Bill of Rights; included small farmers and common citizens.

Federalist No. 10

  • Madison: large republic helps control factions and protect minority rights.

Federalist No. 51

  • Madison: separation of powers and checks & balances prevent tyranny.

Federalist No. 70

  • Hamilton: argues for a single energetic executive (strong presidency).

Federalist No. 78

  • Hamilton: judiciary is weakest branch but must have judicial review and lifetime tenure for independence.

Brutus No. 1

  • Anti-Federalist essay warning a large republic and clauses like Necessary & Proper and Supremacy would concentrate power and threaten liberty.

Separation of powers

  • Division of government into branches (legislative, executive, judicial).

Checks and balances

  • Each branch can limit the powers of the other branches.

Legislative branch – main roles

  • Make laws, control budget, confirm/select certain appointments, impeach officials.

Executive branch – main roles

  • Enforce laws, veto legislation, nominate judges and officials, commander-in-chief, conduct foreign policy.

Judicial branch – main roles

  • Interpret laws, review lower court decisions, can declare laws or actions unconstitutional.

Implied example powers of Congress

  • Taxation, commerce regulation, borrowing, creating courts, declaring war.

Interest groups

  • Organizations that try to influence public policy and elections (lobbying, campaign contributions, research/testimony).

Pluralist democracy

  • Multiple groups compete to influence policy; compromise prevents domination by one group.

Participatory democracy

  • Emphasizes broad citizen participation in politics (direct involvement).

Elite democracy

  • Political power is concentrated among a small, wealthy, educated elite.

Direct democracy

  • Citizens vote directly on laws and policies (e.g., referendums).

Indirect (Representative) democracy

  • Citizens elect representatives to make policy decisions on their behalf.

Initiative

  • A process that allows citizens to propose a law or constitutional amendment for a public vote.

Popular referendum

  • Citizens vote to approve or reject a law passed by the legislature.

Republic / Republicanism

  • A system where people elect representatives to govern and make laws.

Marbury v. Madison (card repeated for emphasis)

  • Established judicial review, empowering the judiciary to invalidate unconstitutional laws.

McCulloch v. Maryland (card repeated for emphasis)

  • Upheld implied powers and federal supremacy (states cannot tax federal institutions).

U.S. v. Lopez (card repeated for emphasis)

  • Marked a limit on commerce-clause power; reasserted some state authority.

USA PATRIOT Act

  • Expanded government surveillance and information-sharing powers after 9/11.

USA FREEDOM Act

  • Limited some mass collection of phone/internet data and reformed surveillance practices.

Interstate commerce (term)

  • Economic activity crossing state lines that Congress can regulate.

Expressed powers (synonym note)

  • Same as enumerated/explicit powers in the Constitution.

Concurrent powers (card repeated for clarity)

  • Powers both states and federal government exercise (e.g., make and enforce laws, levy taxes).

Implied powers (card repeated for clarity)

  • Powers Congress exercises to carry out expressed powers via the Elastic Clause.

The Declaration of Independence – core ideals

  • Popular sovereignty, natural rights (life, liberty, property), social contract, right to overthrow government that violates rights.

John Locke

  • Enlightenment thinker; natural rights and social contract influenced the Declaration and Constitution.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

  • Influenced ideas of popular sovereignty and social contract.

Montesquieu

  • Argued for separation of powers between branches.

King’s Dominion Law (Virginia example)

  • Example cited: Virginia law requiring schools to start after Labor Day to boost tourism (state-level policy example).

Article I, Section II (House powers)

  • House has sole power of impeachment.

Interstate compact (card repeated)

  • Agreement between states requiring congressional approval.

Electoral process notes (quick)

  • States decide how to select electors; electors formally vote for president; some state laws bind electors.

Why amendment process matters (quick)

  • Ensures stability and that changes reflect broad consensus across states