Historical Antecedents of Science, and Interactions Between, Science, Technology, and Society

Definitions and Concepts of Science and Technology

• Science as a Body of Knowledge: Science is a collection of information that seeks to understand the natural world. It aims to explain natural phenomena and entities such as pollination, volcanic eruptions, and constellations.

• Science as an Intellectual Activity: This definition characterizes science as a systematic and objective process of investigation or understanding of the natural world. It specifically involves the methods of observation and experimentation.

• Science as a Personal and Social Activity: In this context, science is a means for human beings to understand their own nature and the world around them. It is inherently connected to the daily lives of individuals and the broader functions of society.

• Technology as Artifacts: This refers to physical products, inventions, and outputs resulting from technological efforts. Examples include microscopes, solar panels, and light bulbs.

• Technology as a Technique: Technology is defined by the practices, methods, or steps taken to achieve a goal. Examples include genetic engineering, rice planting, and welding.

• Technology as a Personal and Social Activity: Technology serves as a tool for humans to improve themselves and their everyday existence, establishing a continuous link between technology and society.

• Dual Interaction: Science and technology influence each other reciprocally. Science is necessary for the development of new technologies, while technology is essentially required to advance scientific exploration.

• Interaction with Society: Both science and technology are social activities that maintain dual interactions with society, influencing and being influenced by social considerations throughout history.

Science and Technology in the Ancient World

• Early Origins: The exact time and place where science and technology began are unknown. The earliest known technologies were stone tools, such as scrapers and hammers, used during the Stone Age. Specific materials found at Skorba in Malta include flint, chert, and obsidian tools.

• Skills of Early Humans: Early hunters, gatherers, and foragers developed techniques for weapon making, the use of fire, and the identification of edible flora and fauna. These practices spread globally through migration across continents.

• Agricultural Revolution: Roughly $10,000$ years ago, as populations increased and natural food sources decreased, humans began domesticating plants and animals. This process started in the Middle East and led to the development of early Babylonian ploughs.

• Development of Towns: The Agricultural Revolution facilitated the establishment of permanent settlements. Humans began creating sun-dried bricks, ceramics, mortars, and metal products.

• Early Metallurgy: The first metal used by humans was copper ($6500\,BCE$). Ancient Egyptian copper tools and German bowls from approximately $5000\,BCE$ provide evidence of these advancements.

• End of the Agricultural Revolution: By the conclusion of this period, metalwork in copper, bronze, and iron was common. Successes included advanced ceramics, the development of wheels for transportation, and the invention of writing systems like Cuneiform.

• Rise of Civilizations: Scientific knowledge and technological progress enabled the rise of civilizations, which in turn fostered infrastructure development, such as irrigation systems, roads, and bridges.

Classical Antiquity

• Greek and Roman Dominance: The period of Classical Antiquity was characterized by the dominance of Greek and Roman civilizations. The modern concept of science emerged here, beginning with the Ionian School of philosophy, which introduced a scientific method based on reasoning and observation.

• Notable Philosophers: Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle laid the foundations for modern science by initiating the discipline of understanding the universe through systematic inquiry.

• Socrates ($470 - 399\,BC$): Known for the elenchus, a method of inquiry where a problem is broken down into a series of questions. This method serves as the basis for the modern hypothesis-making process in research.

• Plato ($427 - 347\,BC$): A student of Socrates who posited that all substances are composed of earth, air, water, and fire. He emphasized the necessity of concrete "proof" and clear hypotheses in understanding nature.

• Aristotle ($384 - 322\,BC$): A student of Plato who is known for the deductive method of scientific inquiry. He maintained that natural principles could be identified through careful, systematic observation.

• Alexandria, Egypt: This city became a primary center of scientific knowledge. Important artifacts include the Edwin Smith Papyrus, an African scientific text detailing ancient surgical methods. Other applications included cloth tanning, distillation, and fermentation.

• Ancient China: China saw advancements in the development of the compass, ships, ceramics, and metal products. A major construction feat was the Great Wall, built between $220 - 206\,BC$.

The Middle Ages

• Period of Decline: Around $530\,AD$, scientific development in Europe slowed due to wars, famine, diseases (the plague), piracy, and poverty.

• Impact of Christianity: The rise of Christianity in Europe contributed to the decline of science as the Church questioned the teachings of early philosophers. Between $530\,AD$ and $1000\,AD$, the Roman Empire focused less on theoretical science.

• Survival of Medicine: Medicine continued to grow out of necessity as Christians sought cures for the deadly plague ravaging the continent.

• Shift to India and Islam: While Europe stalled, science flourished elsewhere. In India, mathematics, medicine, and astronomy were highly advanced, notably with the discovery of the importance of the number zero ($0$).

• Islamic Civilization: Islamic scholars developed astronomical tables and new chemicals such as borax. In medicine, they created new instruments and humane treatment methods, though they did not advance in anatomy because Islam prohibited autopsies at that time.

• Revival in Europe: Emperor Charlemagne revived European science by ordering the establishment of schools. This era saw the use of water and wind as energy sources and the development of clocks and moving objects.

The Modern Age and the Scientific Revolution

• Age of Discovery and Exploration: This era was enabled by advancements in ship design (capable of long voyages), the compass, geography, and cartography.

• Post-Black Death Recovery: The disarray following the Black Death forced European societies to find new ways to live, leading to the development of new tools and techniques which marked the transition from the Middle Ages to the Modern Age.

• The Renaissance: A cultural movement based on humanism, prioritizing human potential over supernatural powers. Leonardo da Vinci is a primary example of an artist who was also a scientist.

• Scientific Revolution: This emerged alongside the foundation of England’s Royal Society, featuring members like Sir Isaac Newton and Benjamin Franklin.

• Copernicus and Heliocentrism: Nicolaus Copernicus ($1473 - 1543$) challenged the geocentric view of the universe with his heliocentric model, sparking the Copernican Revolution despite Church opposition.

• Microscopy and Astronomy: The telescope advanced astronomy, while the invention of the microscope allowed for the discovery of microorganisms and the understanding of disease.

• Galileo Galilei ($1564 - 1642$): Known as a leading figure of the Scientific Revolution, he introduced experimentation via the scientific method, created mathematical explanations for natural concepts, and invented numerous devices.

• The Enlightenment ($17\text{th} - 18\text{th}$ Century): This period emphasized logic and reasoning over Church teachings. Carolus Linnaeus published foundational works on biological classification during this time.

• Sir Isaac Newton ($1643 - 1727$): Published Principia, establishing the foundation of modern physics. He used the scientific method to develop theories from observations and experiments to predict phenomena.

• Industrial Revolution: Driven by the demand for efficiency, machines were developed. The steam engine, invented by James Watt in $1765$, was the most revolutionary invention of this time.

• Environmental Impact: The Industrial Revolution marked the start of rapid environmental destruction, including forest loss and river pollution from industrial waste.

• Theoretical Conflicts: Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace proposed the Theory of Evolution, which was a milestone in biology but faced significant public and religious opposition.

Advances in the $19\text{th}$ and $20\text{th}$ Centuries

• Communal Effort: Science became a rapid, collaborative effort among scientists starting in the $19\text{th}$ century. Adoptions of new communication and transportation technologies led to massive lifestyle changes and urbanization.

• Warfare and Weapons: Technological progress led to the creation of atomic bombs, dynamites, and other explosives. In Germany, dedicated laboratories developed weapons for the World Wars, leading to high casualty rates.

• Plastics: Invented in the $1940\text{s}$ and $1950\text{s}$, plastics allowed for new products but eventually became a major environmental pollutant due to low biodegradability.

• Molecular Biology: In $1953$, James Watson and Francis Crick, using data from scientists like Rosalind Franklin, discovered the structure of DNA. This led to genetic engineering and gene therapy.

• Agricultural Advances: The $1940\text{s}$ saw the development of fertilizers, hybrid seeds, and the pesticide dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane ($DDT$). While food production increased, the negative health and biodiversity impacts of $DDT$ sparked the environmentalist movement.

• Digital Revolution: The development of computers, the Internet, and software led to the Information Age. This enabled e-commerce, distance learning, and social media, but also introduced cyber warfare.

Science and Technology in the Philippines

• Pre-colonial Period: Archaeological findings show simpler technology compared to China or Japan. Early Filipinos used stone and metal tools and developed pottery, weaving, and ceramics. By $1000\text{ AD}$, they had advanced shipbuilding (the balangay) used for trade and fishing.

• Spanish Regime: The Spaniards introduced modern S&T through schools, hospitals, and research facilities (e.g., University of Santo Tomas), largely controlled by religious orders. Science became a profession, but favored Spanish interests over Filipinos.

• Spanish Period Scientists: Notable Filipinos who studied in Europe include Anacleto del Rosario, Leon Ma. Guerrero, and Trinidad Pardo de Tavera.

• State of Research under Spain: The colonial government preferred Spanish scientists, and the Church discouraged natural and material sciences. By the end of the regime, only medicine and pharmacy were well-developed.

• American Period: Science advanced rapidly through secularized public schools and universities like the University of the Philippines and the Philippine Normal College (now Philippine Normal University). Early educators were American.

• Bureau of Science ($1905$): The primary research facility in the Philippines until WWII. Research focused on dominant diseases: leprosy, cholera, dengue, and malaria. The Philippine Journal of Science ($1906$) reported these findings.

• National Research Council ($1933$): Established to promote scientific research. Despite more engineers and scientists, the country remained agricultural.

• Commonwealth and Post-War: Scientific productivity increased under the Commonwealth but stopped during WWII. After the war, the Institute of Science ($1947$) and the Science Foundation of the Philippines ($1952$) were established.

• $1957$ Report on Decline: A study identified four reasons for S&T decline in the Philippines: lack of government support, brain drain of scientists, low morale among local scientists, and low public awareness.

• Current Standing: While government support has increased, the Philippines still lags behind Asian neighbors in scientific productivity, and student performance in science and mathematics is generally poor.

Questions and Discussion

• Ancient Technology: What were the technologies of the ancient world? What was their impact? Do we still see them today, or have they evolved?

• The "Four Great Inventions": These symbolized China’s achievements. What were they and are they relevant today?

• Middle Ages Technology: What was invented, and why? What are the modern versions or branches of these technologies? Why have some disappeared?

• Industrial Revolution Inventions: Apart from the steam engine, inventions like the telephone, light bulb, and motor car were vital. How have these been improved or branched out?

• Environmental Impact of the Information Age: How do current advancements affect the environment now and in the future?

• Social Media: Is it a boon or a bane to societal development, specifically regarding political landscapes, advocacy, and campaigns?

• Ethics and Public Trust: Using the $2017$ Dengvaxia controversy and the $2019$ measles outbreak as a case study: What is the responsibility of scientists and technologists to society regarding ethical practice and vaccine safety?