Detailed Notes

Page 1: Introduction

  • Title: AQA Psychology A-level

  • Topic: Psychopathology

  • Source: PMT Education

Page 2: Definitions of Abnormality

Statistical Infrequency

  • A disorder is considered abnormal if its frequency is more than two standard deviations from the mean on a bell curve.

  • Employed in clinical diagnoses as a comparison to a ‘normal’ value.

  • Example: Schizophrenia affects 1% of the general population.

  • Assumptions: Not all deviations are negative; e.g. a high IQ (above 130) is viewed positively.

Failure to Function Adequately

  • Proposed by Rosenhan and Seligman (1989).

  • Defined as a condition where an individual cannot lead a ‘normal’ life or adhere to social norms.

  • Criteria include distress, unpredictable behavior, and potential danger to self or others.

  • Strength: Takes into account patient's perspective for a more accurate diagnosis.

  • Weakness: Can lead to stigmatization and prejudice, labeling individuals as ‘crazy’.

Deviation from Social Norms

  • Behavior deemed abnormal if it deviates from culturally-defined social norms.

  • Diagnoses may vary based on cultural contexts, leading to discrimination.

  • Example: Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD) involves aggressive behavior breaching societal norms.

  • Historical misuse for social control: 'nymphomania' to deter female infidelity.

  • Cultural relativism is a weak point, as perceptions of symptoms vary across cultures.

Deviation from Ideal Mental Health

  • Proposed by Jahoda (1958).

  • Focuses on what constitutes an ideal mental state: self-actualization, realistic self-perception, lack of distress, normal motivation, and high self-esteem.

  • Weakness: Unrealistic expectations that most people cannot consistently meet.

  • Cultural relativism implications regarding concepts like self-actualization.

Page 3: Characteristics of Phobias

Behavioral Characteristics

  • Panic: Increased physiological arousal when exposed to the phobic stimulus.

  • Avoidance: Engaging in behaviors to avoid the phobic stimulus, negatively reinforcing these behaviors.

  • Endurance: Remaining in contact with the phobic stimulus despite heightened anxiety.

Emotional Characteristics

  • Anxiety resulting as a consequence of panic.

  • Patient may be unaware that their fears are irrational.

Cognitive Characteristics

  • Selective attention towards the phobic stimulus.

  • Formation of irrational beliefs regarding the stimulus.

  • Cognitive distortions leading to an exaggerated perception of danger (e.g., mycophobia).

Page 4: Characteristics of Depression

Behavioral Characteristics

  • Changes in activity levels can lead to psychomotor agitation or lethargy.

  • Aggression towards self/others (verbal or physical).

  • Altered sleep and eating patterns (e.g. insomnia, obesity).

Emotional Characteristics

  • Low self-esteem and prolonged poor mood.

  • Elevated levels of self-directed anger.

Cognitive Characteristics

  • Absolutist thinking: Viewing events in extremes.

  • Selective attention: Focusing on negative past events.

  • Poor concentration which exacerbates feelings of hopelessness.

Page 5: Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

Behavioral Characteristics

  • Compulsions: Repetitive actions or thoughts to alleviate anxiety.

  • Avoidance behavior is based on escaping unpleasant consequences.

Emotional Characteristics

  • Guilt and disgust regarding compulsive behaviors.

  • Anxiety from knowledge of the irrational nature of obsessions.

Cognitive Characteristics

  • Acknowledgment of excessive and irrational anxiety.

  • Development of strategies to control obsessions.

Page 6: The Behavioral Approach to Explaining Phobias

  • Mowrer's theory suggests that phobias are formed via classical conditioning and maintained through operant conditioning (e.g., Little Albert experiment with fear conditioning).

  • Avoidance behaviors are negatively reinforced.

  • Strengths: Explains how phobias are acquired and suggest practical therapies like systematic desensitization.

Alternative Explanations

  • Buck posits safety as a primary motivator for avoidance behaviors, complicating Mowrer's view.

  • Seligman's Preparedness Theory: Some stimuli provoke phobias due to ancestral threats, enhancing survival.

Page 7: The Cognitive Approach to Explaining Depression

Cognitive Vulnerability

  • Beck proposes depression arises from faulty processing, negative self-schemas, and a cognitive triad of automatic negative thoughts.

  • Supporting Evidence: Grazioli and Terry found a correlation between cognitive vulnerability and postpartum depression.

  • Ellis's ABC model links activating events to irrational beliefs leading to emotional consequences (depression).

Limitations

  • ABC model limited to reactive depression; does not address non-triggered cases.

Page 8: The Biological Approach to Explaining OCD

Genetic Factors

  • Diathesis-stress model highlights genetic susceptibility to OCD (Lewis et al. findings).

  • Polygenic nature of OCD: 230+ genes may be involved.

Limitations

  • Difficulty identifying crucial candidate genes due to the sheer number.

  • Environmental stressors also play a significant role, as found by Cromer et al.

Page 9: The Biological Approach to Treating OCD

Drug Treatments

  • SSRIs increase serotonin levels, while tricyclics and SNRIs are alternatives.

  • Side effects can hinder treatment adherence (e.g., Clomipramine).

  • Strengths: Cost-effective and less disruptive than psychological therapies, allowing for normal living while treating symptoms.