The Rise of Nationalism in Europe and the Formation of Nation-States

Frédéric Sorrieu's Vision: The Dream of Worldwide Democratic and Social Republics

In $1848$ , Frédéric Sorrieu, a French artist, created a series of four prints visualising a world of ‘democratic and social Republics’.
The First Print Details: - Depicts the peoples of Europe and America (men and women of all ages and social classes) marching in a long train. - They offer homage to the Statue of Liberty as they pass. - Liberty is personified as a female figure bearing the torch of Enlightenment in one hand and the Charter of the Rights of Man in the other. - Shattered Symbols: On the ground are the shattered remains of symbols of absolutist institutions. - The Procession: In Sorrieu’s utopian vision, nations are grouped by their flags and national costumes. Leading the way past the statue are the United States and Switzerland, which were already nation-states. - Other Nations: France (identifiable by the revolutionary tricolour) has just reached the statue. Germany (carrying the black, red, and gold flag) follows. At the time, the German people were not yet a united nation; the flag represented liberal hopes for unification in $1848$ . Following Germany are Austria, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Lombardy, Poland, England, Ireland, Hungary, and Russia. - Divine Symbolism: From the heavens, Christ, saints, and angels gaze upon the scene, symbolising fraternity among the nations of the world.

Defining the Nation: Ernst Renan

In his $1882$ lecture at the University of Sorbonne, "Qu’est-ce qu’une nation?" (‘What is a Nation?’), French philosopher Ernst Renan criticalised the idea that a nation is formed solely by common language, race, religion, or territory.
Renan’s Attributes of a Nation: - It is the culmination of a long past of endeavors, sacrifice, and devotion. - Social capital is based on a "heroic past, great men, [and] glory." - For the present, it requires a "common will," having performed great deeds together and wishing to do more. - A nation is a "large-scale solidarity." - Its existence is a "daily plebiscite" (the right of inhabitants to be consulted). - Renan argued that nations are a necessity and a guarantee of liberty, preventing the world from having only one law and one master.

The French Revolution and the Concept of the Nation

The first clear expression of nationalism occurred with the French Revolution in $1789$ .
Transfer of Sovereignty: Sovereignty moved from the absolute monarchy to a body of French citizens.
Measures to Create Collective Identity: - Ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasized a community with equal rights under a constitution. - A new tricolour flag replaced the former royal standard. - The Estates General was elected by active citizens and renamed the National Assembly. - New hymns, oaths, and commemorations of martyrs were done in the name of the nation. - Administrative Changes: A centralized system formulated uniform laws. Internal customs duties and dues were abolished. A uniform system of weights and measures was adopted. - Language: Regional dialects were discouraged; French (as spoken in Paris) became the common language.
Mission of Liberation: The revolutionaries declared it the destiny of France to help other European peoples become nations and liberate them from despotism.
Spread of Ideas: Students and the educated middle class set up Jacobin clubs. French armies moved into Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, and Italy in the $1790s$ , carrying the idea of nationalism abroad.

The Napoleonic Era and the Civil Code

Napoleon introduced reforms he had established in France to the territories under his control.
The Civil Code of 1804 (Napoleonic Code): - Abolished all privileges based on birth. - Established equality before the law. - Secured the right to property.
Administrative Reforms in Europe: - Simplified administrative divisions in the Dutch Republic, Switzerland, Italy, and Germany. - Abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues. - Removed guild restrictions in towns. - Improved transport and communication systems.
Economic Impact: Businessmen and small-scale producers realised that uniform laws, standardized weights/measures, and a common national currency facilitated the exchange of goods and capital.
Local Reaction: Mixed. Initially welcomed as "harbingers of liberty" in places like Brussels, Mainz, Milan, and Warsaw. However, enthusiasm turned to hostility due to increased taxation, censorship, and forced conscription into the French armies.

The Making of Nationalism in Europe

In the mid-eighteenth century, there were no nation-states. Germany, Italy, and Switzerland were divided into kingdoms, duchies, and cantons.
The Habsburg Empire: A patchwork of regions like Tyrol, Austria, Sudetenland, Bohemia (German-speaking aristocracy), Lombardy, and Venetia (Italian-speaking). In Hungary, half the population spoke Magyar; in Galicia, the aristocracy spoke Polish. The only tie was allegiance to the emperor.
Social Structure: - Landed Aristocracy: The dominant class, small in number, united by a common way of life and the French language. Often connected by marriage. - Peasantry: The majority of the population. - New Middle Class: Emerged due to industrialisation (which began in England in the late $18th$ century). Comprised of industrialists, businessmen, and professionals. National unity ideas gained popularity among this educated, liberal group.

Liberal Nationalism

Derived from the Latin liber (free), liberalism meant freedom for the individual and equality before the law.
Political Stance: Emphasised government by consent, the end of autocracy/clerical privileges, a constitution, and representative government. Stressed the inviolability of private property.
Universal Suffrage: Not a component of early liberalism. In revolutionary France, only property-owning men had the right to vote. Under Napoleon, suffrage was limited and women were reduced to the status of a minor under fathers/husbands.
Economic Stance: Freedom of markets and abolition of state-imposed restrictions. - The German Confederation: Consisted of $39$ states, each with its own currency and weights. A merchant travelling from Hamburg to Nuremberg in $1833$ encountered $11$ customs barriers with a $5\%$ duty at each. - Zollverein (1834): A customs union formed by Prussia. It abolished tariff barriers and reduced currencies from over $30$ to $2$ .

Conservatism after 1815 and the Congress of Vienna

After Napoleon's defeat in $1815$ , European governments favored conservatism (tradition, monarchy, Church). Some saw that Napoleonic modernisation could actually strengthen traditional monarchies.
The Treaty of Vienna (1815): - Hosted by Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich. - Aimed to undo Napoleonic changes and restore overthrown monarchies. - Territorial Changes: Bourbon dynasty restored in France. France lost annexed territories. Kingdom of the Netherlands (including Belgium) set up in the north. Genoa added to Piedmont. Prussia given territories on western frontiers. Austria gained control of northern Italy. Russia received part of Poland; Prussia received part of Saxony. - Autocratic Rule: These regimes imposed censorship on newspapers and books to curb ideas of liberty.

The Revolutionaries and Giuseppe Mazzini

Fear of repression drove liberal-nationalists underground into secret societies.
Giuseppe Mazzini: - Born in Genoa in $1805$ . - Member of the Carbonari; exiled in $1831$ for a revolution attempt in Liguria. - Founded Young Italy (Marseilles) and Young Europe (Berne). - Believed nations were the "natural units of mankind." - Sought to forge Italy into a single unified republic. Metternich described him as ‘the most dangerous enemy of our social order’.

The Age of Revolutions: 1830–1848

July Revolution (1830): Bourbon kings overthrown in France; Louis Philippe became constitutional monarch.
Belgium: Uprising in Brussels led to Belgium breaking away from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands.
Greek War of Independence: Greece was part of the Ottoman Empire. Struggle began in $1821$ . Lord Byron (English poet) collected funds and died in the war in $1824$ . The Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognized Greece as independent.
Romanticism: Cultural movement emphasizing emotions and intuition over reason. Johann Gottfried Herder argued for volksgeist (true spirit of the nation) through folk culture.
Language as Resistance: - The Grimm Brothers: Collected folktales to preserve a "pure German spirit" against French domination. - Poland: After Russian occupation, the Polish language was banned. The clergy used Polish as a symbol of resistance; many were jailed or sent to Siberia by Russia as a result.

Economic Hardship and the 1848 Revolution

The 1830s Hardship: Population explosion, rural-to-urban migration, and competition from cheap English machine-made goods.
Silesian Weavers’ Revolt (1845): Weavers revolted against contractors who reduced payments. A mob destroyed a contractor's mansion; the army was called, and $11$ weavers were shot.
1848 Paris: Food shortages and unemployment led to barricades and Louis Philippe fleeing. A Republic was proclaimed, granting suffrage to all adult males above $21$ and the right to work.
Frankfurt Parliament (1848): - $831$ elected representatives met in the Church of St Paul on $18$ May $1848$ . - Drafted a constitution for a German nation headed by a monarchy subject to parliament. - Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia rejected the crown offered by the assembly. - The assembly failed as it lost worker support and was disbanded by troops.

The Unification of Germany and Italy

Germany: - Prussia took leadership. Otto von Bismarck (Chief Minister) used the army and bureaucracy. - Three wars over seven years (Austria, Denmark, France). - January 1871: Prussian King William I proclaimed German Emperor at the Palace of Versailles.
Italy: - Fragmented into seven states; only Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by an Italian house (Victor Emmanuel II). - Chief Minister Cavour: Engineered an alliance with France to defeat Austria in $1859$ . - Giuseppe Garibaldi: Led the "Expedition of the Thousand" in $1860$ to the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. - 1861: Victor Emmanuel II proclaimed king of united Italy. Rome was joined in $1870$ .

The Case of Great Britain

Nation-building was a long process. The English parliament seized power in $1688$ .
Act of Union (1707): England and Scotland formed the ‘United Kingdom of Great Britain’, allowing England to impose influence and suppress Scottish culture (Gaelic language and national dress).
Ireland: Deeply divided between Catholics and Protestants. After a failed revolt in $1798$ led by Wolfe Tone, Ireland was incorporated in $1801$ .

Visualising the Nation

Artists used female allegories to represent the nation.
Marianne (France): Represented the Republic with the red cap, tricolour, and cockade.
Germania (Germany): Wears a crown of oak leaves (representing heroism). Symbols included the sword (readiness to fight) and the broken chain (freedom).

Nationalism and Imperialism: The Balkans

By the late $19th$ century, nationalism became narrow and aggressive.
The Balkans: A region comprising modern Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia, and Montenegro inhabited by Slavs.
Conflict arose as the Ottoman Empire disintegrated. Internal rivalries and big power competition (Russia, Germany, England, Austro-Hungary) turned the region into a ‘powder keg’.
This tension eventually led to the First World War in $1914$ .

Questions & Discussion

The 1848 Revolution of the Liberals: Supported by the educated middle class for constitutionalism, national unification, and parliamentary principles.
The Question of Women’s Rights: - Carl Welcker: Argued biological differences meant women should stay in the home for family harmony. - Louise Otto-Peters: Argued "Liberty is indivisible" and men should not enjoy freedom while women remain unfree. - Anonymous Reader: Noted the injustice of denying property-owning, talented women the vote while granting it to men with less responsibility.
Important Definitions: - Absolutist: A system of rule with no restraints; centralized, militarised, and repressive monarchy. - Utopian: A vision of society so ideal it is unlikely to exist. - Plebiscite: A direct vote by people of a region to accept or reject a proposal. - Suffrage: The right to vote. - Conservatism: Philosophy stressing tradition and established institutions over quick change. - Allegory: Abstract idea expressed through a person or thing. - Feminist: Belief in social, economic, and political equality of the genders. - Ideology: System of ideas reflecting a particular social and political vision.