exam final
Chapter 17
Projection: process by which the brain refers sensation to their point of stimulus
propriate section: awareness of muscles in relationship to space.
Chemical senses: taste and smell. 10,000 taste buds. We make them every 10 days.
3 types of epithelial cells in our taste buds: gustatory, supporting and stem cells.
supporting cells: Surround the gustatory receptor capsule
gustatory cells: take the food molecules and make electrical energy
Stem cells: produce supporting cells, then develop into gustatory cells. Live 10 days.
3 papillae in our tongue: Circumvallate papillae, fungiform papillae, Folate papillae
Circumvallate papillae: Inverted V at back of tongue, bitter taste, Cranial nerve 9
Fungiform papillate: Anterior 2/3 of tongue, sweet sour salty taste, cranial nerve 7.
Folate papillae: Back sides of tongue, degenerates early. infants detect poison & spit it
Filiform papillae: on the tongue, lack taste buds, create friction for chewing, help bring food to molars
Limbic system: area in cerebral cortex, taste and smell project, trigger emotional memories from smell/taste
Superior nasal cavity: where 10 to 100 million olfactory receptors are found
3 cells in nasal cavity: Supporting cells (olfactory epithelium), basal cells, Bowmans
Supporting cells (olfactory epithelium) in nasal cavity: Columnar epithelial cells that provide nourishment, electrical insulation, & detoxification for olfactory receptors
Basal cells in nasal cavity: under the epithelium that divide to produce new olfactory receptors
Bowmans in nasal cavity: Olfactory glands, produce the mucus required for smelling
Eyebrows: keep sweat out of the eyes.
Eyelids: open & close the eyes
Eyelashes: help filter light entering the eye
Lacrimal apparatus: tear ducts that help flush out the eyes
Intrinsic muscles: Muscles that move the eyeball within its socket
Conjunctiva: protective mucous membrane across the eyeball. (papibrum & bulvar)
Approximate diameter of human eye: 1 inch
fibrous tunic: outermost layer of the eye containing the cornea and the sclera
cornea: clear part of the fibrous tunic that emits and refracts (bends) light
sclera: white, tough portion of the eye that provides shape and protection
vascular tuna uvea: middle layer of eye. contains blood supply & absorb scattered light
choroid: vascular tunic. provide blood supply & prevents light from bouncing fuzziness
iris: pigmented portion of eye. Regulates amount of light entering by changing the pupil size
pupil: hole in the center of iris. light enters. pupil constricts in bright light & dilates in dim light
ciliary body: Contains ciliary muscles and suspensory ligaments (zonular fibers) change the shape of the lens. Becomes flat for far vision and round for close
nervous tunic retina: back 2/3 of the eye. changes light energy into electrical impulses
olfactory nerve: cranial 1, responsible for the sense of smell
optic nerve: crania; 2, responsible for carrying visual impulses to the brain (sight)
neural layer retina: Process visual data before traveling to; thalamus & posterior brain
retina’s pigmented layer: absorb scattered light/ light rays
2 photoreceptors in the retina: rods, cones
Rods: Photoreceptors used for vision in dim light and seeing black, white, and gray
Cones: Photoreceptors used for color vision and bright light
Central fovea: direct center of the eye inside the macula lutea, highest density of cones
cataracts: A buildup of calcium behind the lens that clouds vision
anterior cavity of eye: space in front of the eye containing aqueous humor
canal of schelm: Regulates drainage of aqueous humor; blockage can lead to glaucoma
glaucoma: Increased pressure in the eye due to excess aqueous humor
posterior cavity of the eye: vitreous humor; space behind the lens filled with jelly
optic disk: "blind spot" where the optic nerve and blood vessels attach; lacks a retina
visual pathway: Lateral vision stays on the same side(right side, right lobe); medial vision crisscrosses at the optic chiasm (right side, left lobe)
3 regions of ear: External, middle, and inner ear
Auricle: The external portion of the ear that grabs vibratory energy
vestibulocochlear nerve: Cranial 8, cochlear branch for hearing; vestibular branch for equilibrium
tympanic membrane: eardrum, vibrates in response to sound waves
3 auditory ossciles: 3 smallest bones in the body: malleus, incus, and stapes
Organ of corti: organ of hearing located in the cochlea, stimulated by the Tympanic membrane
Auditory (Eustachian) tubes: Tubes in the middle ear that regulate pressure and drain fluid
Labyrinth: inner ear, has fluid
temporal lobe: sound is interpreted
Thalamus: does not interpret smell
Semicircular canals: T3 canals at right angles to each other for dynamic & static equilibrium
utricles and sacules: Structures within the vestibular system (inner ear) for static and dynamic equilibrium
otoliths: Small crystals in the ear. can cause vertigo if they get stuck in sensory hairs
static equilibrium; standing still
dynamic equilibrium: moving
vestibular vertigo: when small crystals called otoliths get stuck in the little hairs, causing you to be dizzy when you move your head
Chapter 18
exocrine glands: secrete hormones through a hollow duct
Endocrine glands: secrete hormones directly into the blood.
Pancreas: 99% acini cells, serve digestion. exocrine 1% (islets of Langerhans) serve endocrine functions
islets of Langerhans : endocrine portion of pancreas, located in the tail, containing alpha, beta, and delta cells.
Hormones: Chemical messengers that regulate the internal environment, metabolic rate, energy balance, muscle contraction, immune response, and growth/development.
Thyroid gland: Regulates metabolic rate and energy balance; calcium regulation for muscle contraction.
Thymus gland: where T-lymphocytes mature; essential for body's immune response.
Human growth hormone: produced by the pituitary gland responsible for growth, development, and tissue repair.
Nervous System: uses electrical impulses (action potentials)
Endocrine System Homeostasis : chemical messengers (hormones).
Hypothalamus: link between nervous and endocrine system; controls the pituitary gland
Pituitary gland: master gland. receives instructions from the hypothalamus & directs other glands.
Water soluble hormones: travel freely through the blood & affect the plasma membrane of target cells.
Lipid soluble hormones: require a protein "shuttle bus" to travel in blood and affect the DNA inside the cell.
tropes or -tropin: Suffixes indicating a hormone from the hypothalamus or pituitary that affects the activity of another endocrine gland.
Luteinizing hormone: Triggers ovulation in women, and testosterone production in men
Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH): A hypothalamic hormone that tells the anterior pituitary to release FSH (Follicle-Stimulating Hormone) and LH (Luteinizing hormone)
Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone (TRH): A hypothalamic hormone that triggers the anterior pituitary to release TSH (Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone)
What does Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH): A hormone from the anterior pituitary that stimulates the thyroid gland to release T3 and T4.
Posterior Pituitary Gland: stores and releases hormones (ADH and Oxytocin). does not synthesize them.
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH): stored in the posterior pituitary that is released during dehydration to conserve water.
Oxytocin: hormone stored in the posterior pituitary that triggers uterine contractions during birth and milk ejection
Anterior Pituitary Gland: synthesizes and secretes its own hormones.
Pineal gland: releases melatonin to regulate sleep-wake cycles and circadian rhythms.
Brain sand: Calcium deposits in the pineal gland that can be seen on X-rays.
Thyroid gland: located right under the larynx.
T3, T4: Triiodothyronine and Tetraiodothyronine (Thyroxine); hormones produced by the thyroid gland that require iodine to function.
Goiter: A swelling of the thyroid gland caused by an iodine deficiency and a resulting over-stimulation by TSH.
Calcitonin: A thyroid hormone that lowers blood calcium levels by moving calcium out of the blood and into the bones.
Hypothyroidism= myxedema: decreased thyroid secretion leading to low metabolic rate, weight gain, dry hair/nails, and cold sensitivity.
Regulate hormone secretion: Regulated by signals from the nervous system, chemical changes in the blood, and other hormones through feedback systems.
Somatrophic cells: Pituitary cells that secrete human growth hormone (hGH) for bone and muscle growth.
Lactotropic cells: Pituitary cells that secrete prolactin to initiate milk production.
Corticotropes: Pituitary cells that affect the adrenal glands and the secretion of glucocorticoids.
Cretinism: caused by a decrease in thyroid hormone during fetal life, resulting in dwarfism.
Hyperthyroidism = graves disease: overactive thyroid causing increased metabolic rate, weight loss, sweating, nervousness, exophtalmos, and insomnia.
Exophthalmos: Edema behind the eyes causing them to bulge; Graves' disease.
Parathyroid gland: located behind the thyroid that release Parathyroid Hormone (PTH).
Parathyroid Hormone PTH: increases blood calcium levels by stimulating osteoclasts to break down bone and kidneys to release calcitriol.
Calcitriol: active form of Vitamin D; helps the ileum of the small intestine absorb calcium from food.
Hypoparathyroidism: A deficiency in PTH leading to low blood calcium, muscle twitches, or convulsions (tetanus).
Tetanus: muscle twitch, spasms, All the muscles might just convulse.
Hyperparathyroidism: excess of PTH causing high blood calcium and weak, malformed bones (osteitis fibrosa cystica)
Adrenal Glands: Glands sitting on top of the kidneys that regulate electrolytes, stress response, and metabolism
Aldosterone: adrenal hormone that controls electrolyte balances, specifically sodium and potassium. Categorized as a mineralocorticoid
Glucocorticoids (Cortisol/Cortisone): Adrenal hormones involved in gluconeogenesis (making glucose), lipolysis (making fat), stress resistance, and decreasing inflammation.
Gluconeogenesis: making new glucose from non-carbohydrate sources, stimulated by glucocorticoids.
Addison's Disease: Hyposecretion of adrenal hormones resulting in fatigue, weight loss, hypoglycemia, bronze skin, and low blood pressure.
Cushing's Syndrome: Hypersecretion of glucocorticoids causing a redistribution of fat (moon face, buffalo hump, hanging belly) and a flushed face.
Alpha Cells: secrete glucagon to break down glycogen into glucose when blood sugar is low.
Beta cells: release insulin to pull glucose into cells for energy/storage when blood sugar is high.
Delta cells: secrete somatostatin to balance the secretion of insulin and glucagon.
Glycogen: storage form of glucose found in the liver